The reading assigned on Moodle has been divided into 6 groups (access group roster below) with each group responsible for approximately the same amount of reading (# of paragraphs). Each person is responsible for completing the wiki assignment (see Moodle) for their reading section.
Since there are multiple people responsible for the same section, be sure not to duplicate what has already been done by someone in your group.
Group 1
The Two Powers (p.889) through The Rise of Human Rights (p. 903).
Group 2
The Fair Deal (p.907) through Cold War Civil Rights (p. 917)
Group 3
What Kind of Nation (p. 920) through A Segregated Landscape (p. 936)
Group 4
Public Housing (p. 936) through The Emergence of the Third World (p. 947)
Group 5
The Cold War in the Third World (p. 947) through Eisenhower and Civil Rights (p. 961)
Group 6 (To ensure equity in selections there is some overlap with Group 5)
Massive Resistance (p. 959) through Kennedy and Civil Rights (p. 975)
The U.S. & the Cold War, 1945-1953
How did the Soviet Union and the United States seek to use their post-war positions in the world? (William Tian)
Both nations saw a chance to promote their own ideologies with their newfound power and to advance their own economic interests. The Soviet Union saw a chance to ingrain communism into Eastern Europe, and use its standing among colonies and younger nations to gain international influence.
The United States also sought to use its postwar position in a similar fashion. It sought to spread its ideology of democracy and free markets throughout the world, and use the economic growth and vitality of the world to ensure American wealth. It also sought to contain Soviet influence, as the spread of Soviet influence would diminish America’s.
The Roots of Containment
Why were the USSR and the United states so opposed to each other? (William Tian)
The philosophical foundations of the US and the USSR meant that they could not agree. They did not share common interests or history; only a common foe. Furthermore, as the Iran incident demonstrated, they had conflicting economic interests, which would eventually have put them against each other, no matter what. They also shared a different view of the world. The US wished to build a postwar world on the basis of free markets, while the Soviets wished to spread Communism and a command economy.
What was the Long Telegram? (Delani Dumpit)
It was written by American diplomat, George Kennan. In it he advised the Truman administration that the Soviets could not be dealt with as a normal government and that Communist ideology drove them to try to expand their power throughout the world. He also claimed that only the United States had the ability to stop them. His telegram laid the foundation for the policy of "containment" in which the United States committed itself to preventing any further expansion of Soviet power.
The Iron Curtain (Felicity Chen)
What was the “iron curtain” that Britain’s former wartime prime minister Winston Churchill declared had descended across Europe?
The Iron Curtain was an imaginary border line dividing the free west from the communist east. On either side of the Iron Curtain, states developed their own international economic and military alliances. Churchill's speach helped popularize the idea of the long-term struggle between the US and the Soviets.
What type of division did the "curtain" represent? Which countries supported which sides? The Iron Curtain was both a physical and an ideological division that represented the way Europe was viewed after World War II. To the east of the Iron Curtain were the countries that were connected to or influenced by the former Soviet Union. The other countries to the west of the Iron Curtain had democratic governments.
Why did Truman decide to contain the Soviets instead of establishing good relationships? (William Tian)
Truman saw the leadership of the USSR as untrustworthy, and did not want to establish solid relationships with them. Furthermore, he saw that spreading Soviet influence would harm American interests in strategic areas like the Middle East. In order to protect American interests, Truman started the policy of containing communism.
How did the policy of containment affect US foreign policy during the Cold War?
Truman’s policy promoted a spirit of bipartisanship in the US when it came to anticommunism. It also greatly expanded the US’s promotion of the free market social system. It also spurred the US to support any anticommunist regime, no matter how un-democratic, and also helped the creation of anti-Soviet military alliances.
In fact, George Lister, a faculty member at the University of Texas, argues that although the US did support right-wing dictatorships, it did so in order to promote democracy in the non-traditional sense, that is economic and social democracies that provided people with more opportunities than simply voting. This was the American justification for supporting dictators like Pinochet.
Augusto Pinochet, the dictator of Chile who took power with US backing after overthrowing Salvador Allende.
The Marshall Plan(Manisha Sahai)
What did Secretary of State George C. Marshall say was one pillar of containment?
He pledged the United States to contribute billions of dollars to finance the economic recovery of Europe
What did the severe weather of the winter of 1946-1947 essentially do?
It strengthened the communist parties of France and Italy. American policymakers feared that these countries might fall into the Soviet orbit.
Whatwasthe Marshall Plan?
It offered a positive vision to go along with containment.
It aimed to combat the idea, widespread since the Depression, that capitalism was in decline and communism was the wave of the future.
It defined the threat to American security not so much as Soviet military power but as economic and political instability, which could be breeding grounds for communism.
Its aim was "a higher standard of living for the entire nation; maximum employment for workers and farmers; greater production".
Slogan: "Prosperity makes you free".
How did the Marshall Plan define freedom?
It meant more then simply anticommunism - it required the emergence of the "political and social conditions in which free institutions can exist".
It was directed against "hunger, poverty, desperation, and chaos".
What can the Marshall Plan be compared to?
It can be considered a New Deal for Europe; an extension to that continent of Roosevelt's wartime Four Freedoms.
Can be Marshall Plan be considered successful? How so?
Yes, it was one of the most successful foreign aid programs in history.
By 1850, western European production exceeded prewar levels and the region was poised to follow the United States down the road to a mass-consumption society.
Because of it, the U.S. worked out with 23 other western nations the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which proposed to stimulate freer trade among the participants, creating and enormous market for American goods and investment.
Web Source: "The Marshall Plan was very successful; several western European countries experienced a rise in their gross national products of 15 to 25 percent during this period. The plan contributed greatly to the rapid renewal of the western European chemical, engineering, and steel industries. The Marshall Plan concept of economic aid was so successful that President Harry S. Truman extended it to less developed countries throughout the world under the Point Four Program, initiated in 1949" (http://www.britains-smallwars.com/Cold-war/Marshall-Plan.htm).
1. What political changes were made during the reconstruction of Japan? Japan adopted a new, democratic constitution. The new Japanese constitution gave women the right to vote for the first time in Japan’s history.
2. What does Article 9 of Japan’s new constitution state?
Stated that Japan would renounce forever the policy of war and armed aggression, and would maintain only a modest self-defense force.
3. Why did The United States dissolve Japan’s giant industrial corporations?
The United States were initially going to dissolve Japan’s industrial corporations, but abandoned the idea in an effort to rebuild Japan’s industrial base as a bastion of anticommunist strength in Asia.
4. What happened to absentee landlordism and what was the outcome of the change?
Absentee landlordism was eliminated under the new constitution of Japan, it made most tenant farmers owners of their own land.
5. Factors of Japan's speedy economic recovery?
- American econonomic assistance
-Adoption of new technologies
- Low spending on the military
Web source: pbs.org states:
“Students of the occupation period are stunned by how readily the Japanese remade their country along an American model. Although this is often ascribed to the particular Japanese talent for adapting foreign concepts for their own use, many of the changes wrought during the occupation had roots in pre-war Japanese reform movements… and the Japanese Constitution itself, particularly Article 9 outlawing war and guarding against remilitarization.”
The Berlin Blockade and NATO (DANICA HOM)
What was the Berlin Blockade?
It was when the Soviet Union blocked the road/ railroad traffic from American, British & French zones in Germany to Berlin, except for the east of Berlin, since that was under Soviet control. What happened to Germany after Stalin lifted the blockade?
Germany became divided into 2 sides-- West and East Germany. They were each on a different side of the Cold War. Germany was finally reunified in 1991. What prompted the creation of West Germany?
When the US, Britain and France created their own currency in the zones that they controlled in Germany, it resulted in the creation of a new West German government. This government took their side during the Cold War. What was the NATO?
The NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) was created by the US, Canada and 10 European nations from the west. The purpose was to promise a defense against any attacks by the Soviet Union. West Germany soon became a critical part of this organization. Many victims of the Nazis saw West Germany as protection against the Soviet Union, through the NATO. Web Source http://www.funfront.net/hist/europe/coldwar.htm
This site focuses on Turkey's part in the NATO, and how Turkey gained protection against the Soviet Union by aligning itself with the west. The site also mentions how at first, there were no foreign troops stationed in Turkey to help fight the communists. Turkey, on its own, through laws and such, managed to shut down the communists and socialists parties in their country.
This picture is from http://www.indymedia.ie/attachments/aug2008/btccartoon.jpg
The Growing Communist Challenge (Marissa Phelan)
1. Who proved victorious in the Chinese civil war?
In 1949, Mao Zedong led the communists to win the Chinese civil war causing a major setback in Truman's policy of containment.
2.Did the Truman administration recognize Mao Zedong's new government?
No, the Truman administration refused to recognize the new government and even blocked it from occupying China's seat at the United Nations. It was until the 1970s when the United States insisted that the ousted regime remained the legitimate government of China. The regime have been forced into exile on the island of Taiwan.
3. How did the National Security Council react to the new uprising of communists?
The National Security Council approved a call for a permanent military built-up to enable the United states to pursue a global crusade against communism.
4. What prompted the NSC to react this way?
This occurred in the wake of Soviet-American confrontations over southern and eastern Europe and Berlin, the communist victory in China, and Soviet success in developing of the atomic bomb.
4. What was NSC-68?
NSC-68 was created in 1950 and was a manifesto that described the Cold war as an epic struggle between "the idea of freedom" and the "idea of slavery under the grim oligarchy of the Kremlin". It was created by the National Security Council (NSC) and insisted that the "survival of the free world" was at stake. One of the most important policy statements of the early Cold War, NSC-68 helped to spur a dramatic increase in American military spending. Web Source: "Perhaps more than any other document of the period, NSC-68 can claim to be the bible of American national security policy and the fullest statement to that point of the new ideology that guided American leaders" (A Cross of Iron: Harry S. Truman and the Origins of the National Security State, 1945-1954 [Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998], p. 12). The document outlined the National Security Strategy of the United States for that time and analyzed the capabilities of the Soviet Union and of the United States of America from military, economic, political, and psychological standpoints...NSC-68 would shape government actions in the Cold War for the next 20 years and has subsequently been labeled the "blueprint" for the Cold War" (http://en.allexperts.com/e/n/ns
What was the difference between North & South Korea?
South Korea was anticommunist and was allied with the US, except they were not a democratic government. Northern Korea was communist, allied with the Soviet Union and invaded South Korea in June of 1950, hoping to regain control. What were the major events of the Korean War?
September 1950-- Americans launch counterattack behind North Korean lines, and North Korea retreated as the Americans advanced, occupying most of North Korea.
October 1950 -- UN is attacked by the Chinese near the Chinese border, and the UN is pushed back. MacArthur (US General) wanted to invade China and use nuclear weapons, but Truman refused, not wanting to have a war on the Asian mainland.
1953 -- A cease fire is agreed upon between North and South Korea, putting things back to the way they were before the war. There was never really a treaty that ended this war.
What was the thirty-eighth parallel? (Delani Dumpit)
This was the original boundary between the two Koreas. It was here that the war settled into a stalemate.
What did the Korean War show about the world?
Global harmony was no longer a high priority for the world. The world had been divided into two by the NATO. It also demonstrated that the US was the leading power in the West. Web Source http://www.history.navy.mil/photos/events/kowar/kowar.htm
This website summarizes the Korean War, focusing how the war took longer than most people expected, and how the US was at an advantage, from having recently experienced soldiers and leftover war vehicles from World War II.
Cold War Critics (Kathreece Farrales)
What kind of government did Stalin create in the Soviet Union?
Stalin created a brutal dictatorship that jailed or murdered millions of Soviet citizens. Its one-party rule, strict control of the arts and intellectual life by the state, and government-controlled economy demonstrated the total opposite of democracy and "free enterprise."
Who was Walter Lippmann and what did he think about Truman's policies?
Walter Lippmann was one of the nation's most prominent journalists. He was against the Truman policies, thinking that the US didn't have the equipment and the willingness of recruits to view every challenge to the status quo. He believed it was best for the US to not align itself against the movement for colonial independence in the name of anticommunism.
What was the Long Telegram?
The Long Telegram was sent by George Kennan, who inspired the policy of containment through his observations of the Soviet Union. He believed it was impossible to view international crises on a case-by-case basis, or to determine which genuinely involved either freedom or American interests.
Web Source http://www.articlemyriad.com/22.htm
"The telegram puts forth several important ideas about the intentions of the Soviet government and Kennan discusses at length the “Kremlin’s neurotic view of world affairs” (1946). Kennan suggests that eventually the Soviet powerhouse would collapse, especially if Western institutions and power networks were strengthened. In Kennan’s mind this was because the Soviet power structure was built on weak and unsustainable principles and it ruled based on fear and isolationism. At one point in the telegram, Kennan writes that it is the Soviet’s “instinctive fear of the outside world” (1946) that has allowed a dictatorship to thrive."
Imperialism and Decolonization (Kathreece Farrales)
How did World War II help the United States and others?
World War II helped increase awareness of the problems of imperialism and led many African-Americans to identify their own struggle for equality with the strivings of non-white colonial people overseas. It helped inspire many movements for self-govenrment.
What was the Free World?
The Free World was a nation that joined the worldwide anticommunist alliance led by the United States, no matter how repressive to its own people.
How did the Truman administration deal with decolonization both at home and abroad? (Delani Dumpit)
In 1946, the United States granted independence to the Philippines. But during the Cold War, the United States backed away from pressuring it's European allies to grant self-governement to colonies like French Indochina, the Dutch East Indies, and British colonies like the Gold Coast and Nigeria in Africa and Malaya in Asia.
Web Source (Delani Dumpit)
Information on Philippines Independence: http://countrystudies.us/philippines/22.htm
"Demoralized by the war and suffering rampant inflation and shortages of food and other goods, the Philippine people prepared for the transition to independence, which was scheduled for July 4, 1946. A number of issues remained unresolved, principally those concerned with trade and security arrangements between the islands and the United States. Yet in the months following Japan's surrender, collaboration became a virulent issue that split the country and poisoned political life. Most of the commonwealth legislature and leaders, such as Laurel, Claro Recto, and Roxas, had served in the Japanese-sponsored government."
Military Liberty was the code name used by national security agencies to encourage Hollywood to create anticommunist movies. They also pressed to remove references in films of events and topics in American history that placed America in a negative light.
Why was Cold War funding for the arts kept secret?
Congress was not willing to spend money and because Americans charged communist governments with imposing artistic conformity. As the Soviet Union sponsored tours of its orchestras and dance companies, the CIA funded concerts, art exhibits and other things overseas to improve the international image of American race relations to Africa and Asia.
Who was Jackson Pollock?
Pollock was an American painter who led the New York school of painters whose works were promoted by the CIA. His paintings were described as "action paintings" which were created by the spontaneous dripping and pouring of paint over large canvases with vivid color but without a recognizable pattern or shape. Pollock's abstract paintings illustrated an form of expressionism which symbolize American freedom.
This article questions if Jackson Pollock's art was used as a weapon in the Cold War. In the article, evidence is given to show how the CIA was involved with the New York Museum of Modern Art and its leaders. It also reviews the idea of cultural diplomacy in America and arts role in the Cold War.
Why did the CIA fund the Museum of Modern Art in New York?
Through the paintings, the CIA hoped to persuade Europeans that the United States had artistic leadership as well as military power and that art in America allowed freedom of expression which was denied to artists in communist countries.
Freedom and Totalitarianism
The Rise of Human Rights (Marianne Medrano)
Where did the idea of human rights originate?
The idea that there are rights applicable to all humans originated during the eighteenth century in the Enlightenment and the American and French Revolutions.
What raised the issue of human rights in the world after the war?
In the postwar world, the atrocities committed during World War II, as well as the global language of the Four Freedoms and the Atlantic Charter forcefully raised this issue.
What is the importance of the trials at courts at Nuremberg?
Victorious Allies put many German officials on trial before special courts at Nuremberg for crimes against humanity. For the first time, individuals were held directly accountable to the international community for violations of human rights. The trials led to prison terms for many Nazi officials and the execution of ten.
The following crimes were stated as main counts of the indictment:
What was the Universal Declaration of Human Rights?
The United Nations General Assembly approved the Declaration of Human Rights in 1948. It was drafted by a committee chaired by Eleanor Roosevelt and identified a broad range of rights to be enjoyed by people everywhere, including freedom of speech, religious toleration, and protection against arbitrary government, as well as social and economic entitlement like the right to an adequate standard of living and access to housing, education, and medical care.
Did the Universal Declaration of Human Rights have a way to be enforced?
It did not. In fact, some considered it an exercise in empty rhetoric, but the core principle—that a nation’s treatment of its own citizens should be subject to outside evaluation—slowly became a part of the language in which freedom was discussed.
Did some nations pick and choose criteria to follow instead of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights as a whole?
Yes, two examples are the Soviet Union and America. The Soviets claimed to provide all citizens with social and economic right, but violated democratic rights and civil liberties. Many Americans condemned the nonpolitical rights as a step towards socialism.
What did the Freedom House start in 1950?
In 1950, Freedom House began yearly assessments of the status of freedom in the world’s nations. It adopted purely political criteria emphasizing citizens’ rights to participate in open elections and to speak out on public issues. Considering access to employment, housing, education, medical care, and the like as part of the definition of freedom, he reports argued, would be a serious mistake.
How did Eleanor Roosevelt see this Declaration of Human Rights?
She saw the Universal Declaration of Human Rights as an integrated body of principles, a combination of traditional civil and political liberties with the social conditions of freedom outlined in her husband’s Economic Bill of Rights of 1944.
What did the UN do to the Economic Bill of Rights of 1944?
They divided it into two “covenants” – Civil and Political Rights…and Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights. It took until 1992 for Congress to ratify the first. It never approved the second.
The Truman Presidency
The Fair Deal (Rachel Caoili)
What was the outcome of demobilization at the end of World War II? Demobilization occurred at a rapid pace as the armed force was reduced from 12 million to 3 million. Some soldiers found adjustment difficult while others took advantage of the GI Bill of Rights in order to obtain home mortgages, set up small businesses, or commence college education. The majority of returning soldiers entered the labor force. The government abolished wartime agencies that regulated industrial production and labor relations, and it dismantled wartime price controls, which lead to a rise in prices. What was the focus of Truman’s Fair Deal? Truman’s program focused on improving the social safety net and raising the standard living of ordinary Americans. Truman summoned Congress to increase the minimum wag, enact a program of national health insurance, and expand public housing, Social Security, and aid to education. http://us.history.wisc.edu/hist102/photos/assets/photos/1107.jpg
The Postwar Strike Wave (Rachel Caoili)
What was Operation Dixie? Launched by the CIO and AFL the operation was a campaign to bring unionization to the South and shatter the hold of anti-labor conservatives on the region’s politics. What happened during the strike wave? With war production at its end, overtime work diminished following the removal of price controls and the drop in workers’ real income. In result 5 million workers including those in the steel, auto, coal, and other key industries—walked off their jobs, demanding wage increases. How did Truman deal with the strikes? President Truman feared the strikes would disrupt the economy. So, for instance, when railroad workers stopped worked and protested, the president prepared in which he threatened to draft them all and “hang a few traitors.” To resolve other strikes, Truman appointed federal “fact-finding boards,” which generally recommended wage increases, but not enough to restore workers’ purchasing power to wartime levels. (War Veterans march in support for strikers) http://www.bitsofnews.com/images/graphics/garrett/pittsburghstrike2.jpg
The Republican Resurgence (Janelle Corpuz) What effect did Truman's presidency have on the Republican Party?
During Truman's presidency, the Republican part had won both houses in Congress for the first time since the 1920's. Also, in 1946 the middle class voted Republican because of labor turmoil and many strikes were occurring because of business problems. What was done under the Taft Hartley Act? Was it successful?
Under the Taft Hartley Act, the president was allowed to suspend strikes with an 80 day cooling period, they banned sympathy strikes, and secondary boycotts which were labor actions directed at those someone did business with. Closed shops were ouwlawed, which required workers to be Union workers in order to take in a job. States also passsed the "right to work" laws. Union officials were also forced to say they weren't communists. This Act was successful because it made it more difficult for unorganized workers to get into Unions. Also, it cause dthe drvline of organized labor's share of nations workforce. (Website) http://platypus1917.org/2009/12/06/between-old-left-and-new-a-postwar-balance-sheet/
This website shows the people who didn't approve of the Taft-Hartley Act. It was called the Slave-labor bill by the AFL and CIO.
Postwar Civil Rights (Janelle Corpuz) In what ways did the treatment of African Americans change during Truman's presidency?
During Truman's presidency, laws were passed in eleven states to stop discrimination when it came to employment and public places. Also, segregated schools were slowly declining. By the year 1952, 20% of African Americans in american were registered to vote. Also, the biggest change is that lynching finally ceased and it became known as a crime. What happened to African Americans in terms of sports?
The Brooklyn Dodgers added Jackie Robinson to their team, which meant that they were going against the exclusion of black players playing with white players. Robinson had to promise that he wouldn't respond to the racist remarks made while he played. He even won Rookie of the Year. (Website) http://fredyt3.files.wordpress.com/2009/04/jackie-robinson-legends-composite-photofile-posters.jpg
To Secure These Rights (Jessica Gabasan)
What was the purpose of Truman’s To Secure These Rights?
The federal government was given the responsibility of abolishing segregation as well as ensuring equal treatment in housing, employment, education, and the criminal justice system. However, Truman also issued this with the Cold War in mind, thinking that if the US were to offer a choice of “freedom or enslavement” to the world, they must first correct their own flawed practices of democracy.
What were the impacts of Truman’s civil rights program?
Although Congress rejected To Secure These Rights, Truman issued an executive order desegregating the armed forces. As a result, the armed services became the first large institution to remove any unfair, racial practices. The Korean War would be the first American conflict fought by an integrated army since the Revolutionary War.3
The Dixiecrat and Wallace Revolts (Jessica Gabasan)
What was the States’ Rights Democratic Party and what was their beliefs?
The party was formed by southern delegates, called Dixiecrats. They nominated for their president Governor Strom Thurmond of South Carolina. His platform called for the “complete segregation of the races,” although denied charges of racism. He declared that freedom stood for “individual liberty and freedom, the right of people to govern themselves.” He believed Truman’s plans of extending federal power to enforce Southern civil rights resembled Hitler’s dictatorship.
(Web Source) At the 1948 Democratic National Convention, 35 Southern Democrats walked out in protest of the controversial new civil rights planks of racial integration as well as the reversal of Jim Crow laws. Their campaign slogan was “Segregation Forever!” They also believed in “state’s rights”—meaning freedom from governmental interference. Their presidential candidate was Strom Thurmond while the vice president was Field J. Wright. - http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h1751.html
Dixiecrat campaign postcard proposing individual state freedoms.
Who was Wallace and how did he challenge Truman?
The Progressive Party, left-wing critics of Truman’s foreign policy, nominated Henry A. Wallace for president. He aproposed an expasion of social welfare programs at home and strongly denounced racial segregation more than Truman. His focus on the Cold War concerned the international control of nuclear weapons and a renewed relationship with the Soviet Union based on economic cooperation rather than military confrontation. Supporters of his campaign consisted of socialists and communists.
The 1948 Campaign
Jennifer Rillamas
What two things did Truman do to revive New Deal rhetoric?
_ & (choose two) a) denounce Wall Street b) get rid of all radios in american households
c) convert to communism d) accused his opponent with threatening to undermine Social Security
What was a big flaw of Republican candidate Thomas A. Dewey?
a) he said that a vote for Wallace was a vote for Stalin
b) he tried to draw away the south's support for Truman c) he was so sure that he was going to win that he became unwilling to commit himself on huge issues during the time period
d) he criticized Congress as "do-nothings"
Picture Source: http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/cartoons/political_cartoons/little_white_lies.jpg
Web Source: http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/1948campaign/large/docs/documents/index.php?documentdate=1948-06-24&documentid=14-1&studycollectionid=&pagenumber=1
This is the acceptance speech of Thomas A. Dewey as the Republican party candidate for the 1948 election. His speech clearly exemplifies the answer to the multiple choice question above. Being fully cocky and so sure of a victory that in his acceptance speech he makes great generalizations of issues and happenings in the US without direct statements of them only calling them things such as "grave challenges of our time" that have "marked our steadfast". What was demonstrated through presidential candidate Strom Thurmond's ability to only carry four Deep South states in the 1948 election? -Thurmond's ability to only carry four Deep South states in the 1948 election demonstrated that the race issue, in terms of individual freedom, had the potential to lead traditional Democratic white voters to abandon their party.
The Anti-Communist Crusade (Viktor Huerta)-Why was the end of the Cold War similar to the end of World War I? There would be no return to "normalcy" afterwards -What was revealed in the 1950s and 1960s? The Soviet and American governments conducted experiments in which soldiers were exposed to chemical, biological, and nuclear weapons; American nuclear tests exposed thousands of civilians to radiation causing cancer and birth defects http://www.usnews.com/usnews/news/articles/940124/archive_012286.htm The article lightly goes into detail about the types of experiments done during the Cold War. It also mentioned that when the Cold War ended, the declassification of millions of pages of documents on radiation experiments were ordered, and compensation for the test subjects were considered. But it also states that the government said they took no responsibility for the injuries of the test subjects. Image: http://www.europarl.europa.eu/eplive/expert/photo/20060920PHT10822/pict_20060920PHT10822.jpg
-What were some effects of the Cold War? It helped to fuel economic growth and support scientific research that perfected weaponry and led to improved aircraft, computers, medicines, and other products that largely impacted civilian life; promoted rapid expansion of American higher education; reshaped immigration policy by allowing refugees from communism to enter the US regardless of national-origin quotas; American racial policies that caused international embarrassment led to the dismantling of segregation; encouraged drawing a sharp line between patriotic Americans and those accused of disloyalty
Loyalty & Disloyalty (Jasmeet Kaur)
What was the loyalty program (loyalty review system)? The loyalty review system was established by President Truman. It was a system in which government employees were required to demonstrate their patriotism without being allowed to confront accusers or, in some cases, knowing the charges against them. The loyalty program failed to uncover any cases of espionage.
Who did the HUAC charge as communist sympathizers/people that were helping communists?
The committee charged the Hollywood Ten, who included the prominent screenwriters Ring Lardner Jr. and Dalton Trumbo, with contempt of Congress, and they served jail terms of six months to a year. Hollywood studios blacklisted them, along with 200 others who were accused of communist sympathies or who refused to name names.
The Spy Trials (Jasmeet Kaur)What were the spy trials?
A series of highly publicized legal cases that followed the HUAC charges against the Hollywood Ten and others. What was the most sensational spy trial? The trial of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg, a working-class Jewish communist couple from New York City. in 1951, a jury convicted the Rosenbergs of conspiracy to pass secrets concerning the atomic bomb to Soviet agents during World War II (when the Soviets were American allies). What was the importance of the Rosenberg trial? (web source): The case aroused much controversy. Many claimed that the political climate made a fair trial impossible and that the only seriously incriminating evidence had come from a confessed spy; others questioned the value of the information transmitted to the Soviet Union and argued that the death penalty was too severe. Communists in the United States and abroad organized a campaign to save the Rosenbergs and received the support of many liberals and religious leaders. http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/history/A0842422.html
McCarthy & McCarthyism Jennifer Rillamas
What did Joseph R. McCarthy do in February 1950? - In February 1950, McCarthy announced during his speech at Wheeling, West Virginia that he had a list of 205 communists working for the State Department.
What was brought out about McCarthy at the Army-McCarthy trials?
(check all that apply)
a) he himself was really a communist
b) that truly half of the government turned out to be involved with some sort of communist group c) he in reality had no facts or evidence as a basis for his accusations d) he was a total fake who beat up people so they would be his witness
According to Give Me Liberity! Which one of the following statements is a false association with the term "McCarthyism"?
a) character assassination b) pursuing what is unjust for the sake of correction c) guilt by association d) abuse of power in the name of anti communism
An Atmosphere of Fear
[Jacqui Liu]
<< HUAC hearing; anti-communist investigations In what ways was anticommunism as much a local as a national phenomenon?
States created their own committees modeled on HUAC that investigated suspected communists and other dissenters. States and localities required loyalty oaths of teachers, pharmacists, and members of other professions, and the banned communists from fishing, hold a driver’s license, and, in Indiana, working as a professional wrestler.
What were some of the private organizations that also persecuted individuals for their beliefs?
Private organizations included the American Legion, National Association of Manufacturers, and Daughters of the American Revolution. The Better American League of southern California gathered the names of nearly 2 million allege subversives in the region.
What happened to those who failed to testify about their past and present political beliefs?
Throughout the country in the late 1940s and 1950s, those who failed to do so frequently lost their jobs, and also failed to inform on possible communists.
What affect did the “atmosphere of fear” have on public libraries and universities?
Local anticommunist groups forced public libraries to remove from their shelves “un-American” books like the tales of Robin Hood, who took form the rich to give to the poor. Universities refused to allow left-wing speakers to appear on campus and fired teachers who refused to sign loyalty oaths or to testify against others.
How did the courts respond to the political repression occurring? What happened in Dennis v. United States? What does this reveal about the situation?
The courts did nothing to halt the repression, demonstrating James Madison’s warning that popular hysteria could override “parchment barriers” like the Bill of Rights that sought to prevent infringements on freedom. In 1951, in Dennis v. United States the Supreme Court upheld the jailing of Communist Party leaders even though the charges concerned their beliefs, not any actions they had taken.
>More on the court case: http://www.oyez.org/cases/1950-1959/1950/1950_336
The source explains that the leaders of the Communist Party of America were arrested and charged with “violating provisions of the Smith Act.” The Smith Act made it unlawful to conspire to teach and advocate the overthrow or destruction of the US government.
The Uses of Anti-Communism (Chris Mullen)
What was the Soviet presence in the US?
There undoubtedly were Soviet spies in the United States. Yet the tiny Communist Party hardly posed a threat to American security. And the vast majority of those jailed or deprived of their livelihoods during the McCarthy era were guilty of nothing more than holding unpopular beliefs and engaging in lawful political activities.
How was anticommunism prevalent in the US?
A popular mass movement, it grew especially strong among ethnic groups like Polish-Americans, with roots in eastern European countries now dominated by the Soviet Union and among American Catholics in general, who resented and feared communists' hostility to religion.
How did the FBI use anticommunism to expand their power?
Under director J. Edgar Hoover, the FBI developed files on thousands of American citizens, including political dissenters, homosexuals, and others, most of whom had no connection to communism.
Anti-Communist Politics
Cold War and Organized Labor
Cold War Civil Rights
What was the importance of the NAACP and the Urban League during this time period? (Ronny Zelaya)
Both of these groups went through a transformation. For example, both of these groups protested Truman’s loyalty program and questioned how congressional committees defined communism as “un-American” but not racism. But both of these groups went along with McCarthyism because they thought they had no choice. The NAACP purged communists within its branch and changed the civil rights groups tactics and way of thinking.
What was the Southern Conference for Human Welfare? (Ronny Zelaya)
The Southern conference of human welfare was an organization that communists and anticommunists had cooperated in linking racial equality with labor organizing and economic reform. They had been crucial to the struggles of the 1930s and war years, but they fell apart during this time period and NAACP could not fill this loss
What was Truman’s view on the Civil Rights movement during the Cold War?
Despite growing up in the South, President Harry Truman did support and called for greater attention on civil rights. His administration ended segregation in the federal government in 1950s, established a civil rights committee, and the Supreme Court overturned Plessy v Ferguson ( Jim Crow Laws). President Truman wanted to improve the American Image abroad by doing more for civil rights, but the Cold War proved too much and discussing civil rights during this time period because no one wanted to discuss about the imperfection of American Society. Harry Truman Civil Rights
This website mentions the Plessy v Fergusen and the end of segregation of federal jobs mentioned above. It also discusses how Harry Truman grew up in the South and was racist, but when he entered public office, he changed that opinion because he believed that America cannot be considered democratic with equality.
So what was the point of this section? (Ronny Zelaya)
This would reveal the waning moments of the civil rights movement that impacted American History and caused an economic boom. The term “affluent society” transformed American life and open opportunities for white Americans in the suburbs but left blacks in the rural areas of the south. This contrast inspired a civil rights revolution and redefined American freedom.
An Affluent Society, 1953-1960
The Golden Age
How did the 195O's-196O's became known as the Golden Age? (Lizel Mendoza)
The American gross national product more than doubled.
Middle-class benefited from this and received higher wages --> mass consumption in all classes.
electricity, central heating and cooling, and indoor plumbing
Numerous innovations were created, shaping the economy and an average American's life.
TV, air-conditioner, automatic dishwashers, air travel, affordable long-distance phone-calls, etc.----
This outside source suggests that advertising and the image of utopia, through affluence, blinded citizens from the current events that could possibly destroy the new look on America and freedom. Even though watching TV became the number one leisure activity, books and other sources of literature also greatly help enhanced the benefits of instant-gratification. The boundaries between reality and fantasy suddenly disappeared. http://kclibrary.lonestar.edu/decade50.html
What happened to Americans during the Golden Age? (Lizel Menoza)
Around 6O% of Americans had the opportunity to engage in mass consumption.
The poverty rate decreased from 3O% to 22%.
A Changing Economy
What drastic changes took place in the economy of the 1950's? (Martin Palanca)
During the 1950's, American economy shifted from being industrially focused, to publicly focused. America now did more for the people such as implementing services, improving education and information, finance, and made great improvements in entertainment. Farming also had great changes, despite the decline in farm population, production rose by 50 percent due to improved methods of farming. With these changes in farming, the west was now open to more agricultural services and opportunities.
What were the changes to agriculture in the United States during the 1950s? (Anmol Shah)
During the 1950s, the farm population fell from 23 million to 15 million, yet agricultural production rose by 50 percent, thanks to more efficient machinery, the application of chemical fertilizers and insecticides, increased use of irrigation, and the development of new crop strains. The center of gravity of American farming shifted to Texas, Arizona, and especially California. In California, the large corporate farms were worked by Latino and Filipino migrant laborers. How did the Cold War affect the nation’s industries and economy? (Trish Denoga)
Major industries like steel, automobiles, and aircraft dominated the domestic and world markets. The Cold War fueled industrial production and promoted a redistribution of the nation’s population and economic resources.
What was the 1950s seen as, in retrospect?
In retrospect, the 1950s were seen as the last decade of the industrial age in the United States. American economy has shifted rapidly toward services, education, information, finance, and entertainment – while employment in manufacturing has declined.
What happened to the farm industry in the 1950s?
Farm industry declined in the 1950s, but agricultural production rose by 50%, all in thanks to more efficient machinery, the application of chemical fertilizers and insecticides, and increased use of irrigation to open land to cultivation in the West.
What happened in 1958 between United States and the Soviet Union? What was its significance for each country? (Bahareh Mehrizi)
In 1958, the United States and Soviet Union agreed to exchange national exhibitions in order to allow citizens of each “superpower” to become acquainted with life in another. There was a Soviet Union Exhibition in New York that included weapons, machinery, and other communist supplies. An American National Exhibition opened in Moscow. Instead of illustrations of communism throughout its country, United States proved their superiority of capitalism from consumer goods and leisure equipment.
The significance of these exhibitions was a huge controversy towards the meaning of freedom. Many believed that the exhibitions were not meant for the countries to know each other better, but to show superiority amongst one another.
Define the “kitchen debate” and what happened. (Bahareh Mehrizi)
The Soviet Union had a “kitchen debate” between Nixon and Soviet premier, Nikitia Khrushchev. They engaged in debates about capitalism and communism. Their debates took place in a kitchen-furniture like surrounding at a ranch house. Nixon’s views included the American freedom and women’s role in society along with the choice among products, colors, styles, and prices. He saw women more like housewives and regarded them in a traditional perspective. Khrushchev regarded America’s consumer culture in a humorous manner regarded their obsession toward material possessions.
What was the importance of holding the "kitchen debate" in a kitchen? (Marilen Atienza)
The kitchen represented the mass enjoyment of American freedom within a suburban setting, according to Nixon. It was meant to display American freedom of choice among products, colors, styles, and prices. It also was meant to symbolize the role of women being the kitchen. By holding it in a kitchen, Nixon recognized that the power of American goods and popular culture across the globe was more influencing than military might.
A Suburban Nation
What contributed to the "suburban nation" of America in the 1950's? (Martin Palanca)
One major aspect of the suburban nation was the baby boom and the shift of the population from cities to suburbs which inadvertently created a large demand for housing, tv's, appliances, and cars. Also, the dream of home owning, and the belief of a better life in these suburbs became predominant in the lives of Americans. Such can be exemplified in Levittown founded by William and Alfred Levitt. This "Levittown" drew 40,000 people to it, one of the most popular suburban developments of the time. With this new suburban way of living, people would need a new way of acquiring furniture and other leisures for their homes which created THE MALL which people went to with the use of their CARS.
Say hello to the 1950 Mercury:http://www.seriouswheels.com/pics-1950-1959/1950-Mercury-2dr-maroon-scallops-ggr.jpg
What is the meaning of a suburban nation and how did affect the American lifestyle? (Anmol Shah)
America became a suburban nation because of the amount of money spent on residential construction and consumer goods. The baby boom and the shift of population from cities to suburbs created the new suburban nation. An immense demand for housing, television sets, home appliances, and cars emerged out of the 1950s. These changes affected the American lifestyle in many ways. For instance, the number of houses in the United States doubled during the decade, nearly all of them built in the suburbs that sprang up across the landscape.
Urban to Suburbs Website
This website, which includes a free downloadable PDF, describes the changes from an urban to a suburb lifestyle. For example, it explains how the suburban lifestyle is usually not as fast paced as the urban lifestyle. Suburbs have space to build infrastructure, while urban cities usually must build upwards because of the lack of free space. Also, the price of land in urban areas usually are higher; however, this is not always the case. Lastly, it describes how suburbs are often slow and peaceful, while urban areas have many factories and industrial opportunities.
What were the “main engines” of economic growth?(Trish Denoga)
The main engines were residential construction and spending on consumer goods. This was in part because of the idea of "home owning" as a way of providing for one's own family at the time.
Who were William and Alfred Levitt?
They were the most famous home developers at the time who created Levittown.
This family is a prime example of the boom of the realty industry as they were one of the first of many families to purchase a home in Levittown.
This family is a prime example of the boom of the realty industry as they were one of the first of many families to purchase a home in Levittown.
What was Levittown? (Marilen Atienza)
Levittown was a town built by William and Alfred Levitt shortly after World War II. It was built on 1,200 acres of potato fields on Long Island near New York City. More than 10,000 houses were assembled quickly from prefabricated parts and priced well within the reach of most Americans. Soon around 40.000 people lived there. Because of their success William and Alfred Levitt became the most famous suburban developers.
The Growth of the West
What were the characterisitcs of the growth of the west during the 1950's-1960's? (Martin Palanca)
Major population movement from the east to the west would contribute to the characteristics of the growth of the west during the 1950's-1960's. (1/5th of the population growth of the 1950's occured in California and in 1963 became the most populous city of the nation) Cities like L.A., SF, and Houston were filled with homes and business segregated by intricate highway systems. Also, the car was the major contribution to the growth of the west. Many people used cars to go to and from work. And with the spread of suburban homes, many lawns were created (grass was and still is the most cultivated crop).
What attracted people to move to the West in the 195O's? (Lizel Mendoza)
Unlike urbanized cities in the East of the Pacific Ocean, Western cities like Houston, Phoenix, and LA were "centerless" and became more convenient for a typical car driver. Instead of having downtown "hotspots" incorporated with neighborhoods, houses and businesses were scattered in the West, only to be united by highways. With the expansion of highways and roads, the usage of a an automobile became the number one choice of transportation. Another difference between western societies and eastern societies is that shopping districts resided in suburban places rather than in downtown areas making it easier to buy what one desires.
What cities were affected by the growth in the West and how did life go about in those regions? (Anmol Shah)
Houston, Phoenix and Los Angeles, California were two of the cities affected by the growth in the west. However, these cities were considered "centerless" because they were decentralized clusters of single-family homes and businesses united by a web of highways. The Los Angeles basin once had an extensive system of trains, trolleys, and buses, but they were soon replaced by freeways for cars and trucks. Life centered much around the car in the western metropolitan cities. People drove to and from work and did their shopping at malls reachable only by driving.
A Consumer Culture
What created the consumer culture and why is the consumer so important? (Martin Palanca)
The consumer is the key part of our economy because "our ability to consume is endless". The cause for the consumer culture would be mostly on the consumer, which is why he/she is so important. It is the idea that the consumer buys commercial commodities and keeps money circulating. Also, with the addition of the credit card and low interest rates, the economy encouraged the consumer to borrow more money to purchase more goods. This debt, once seen as a loss, became a comfortable living condition by all americans.
http://kclibrary.lonestar.edu/decade50.html
Also, as this website suggests, technology played a huge role in the "Consumer Culture of the 1950-1960's)". With the television coming out, people were buying tv sets to see audio visuals rather than just audio from the radio. The first jetliner began by National Airlines was started with flights from New York to Miami and the Federal Highway Act of 1956 allowed easy transportation from place to place which allowed more goods to be transported much quicker and allowed for consumers to venture to stores in an easier manner.
What did this consumer culture exemplify? (Derek Guterres)
Consumerism basically exemplified the superiority of the American way of life when compared to communism. Even though communism is where everyone receives the same thing, the capitalist and consumerist American society enables everyday citizen to purchase consumer goods that can be thought as luxury rich goods around the world. Communists cannot afford to give everyone luxury rich items such as cars, however the consumerist citizens in America are able to purchase these items, showing America's dominance. American consumer goods was once a status symbol for the rich in other countries, but in America, most people own these goods and are even able to market it to customers around the globe. America's consumerist society enabled ordinary citizens to enjoy luxuries of rich classes in other countries.
How did consumerism change Americans' definition of freedom? (Marilen Atienza)
The measure of American freedom became the ability to gratify market desires. According to Clark Kerr, president of the University of California, although workers are subjected to less freedom "in the workplace", it offered a far greater range of "goods and services," and therefore "a greater scope of freedom" in Americans' "personal lives." American freedom had revolved more around consumerism and the ability to buy.
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/tupperware/peopleevents/e_consumer.html
After World War II, wartime production had helped pull America's economy out of depression, and from the late 1940s on, young adults saw a rise in their spending power. There were many jobs, higher wages, and because of the lack of consumer goods during the war, Americans were eager to spend their money. American consumers were actually praised as patriotic citizens that contributed to the ultimate success of the American way of life. Americans invested in items based around home and family life like televisions, cars, washing machines, refrigerators, toasters, and vacuum cleaners. These gadgets would help them modernize their lives.
The TV World
What influence did the television have in society? (Bahareh Mehrizi)
Images of middle-class life and advertisements for consumer goods flourished throughout the country. Nearly nine out of ten American families owned a TV set by the end of the 1950’s. The television became a common source for information that replaced newspapers and radios. It became the nation’s leading leisure activity, changing the daily lives of Americans. The “TV Dinner” became popular as families watched popular shows including The Honeymooners and The Goldbergs. Many large corporations sponsored and advertised for programs to convey a god life based on consumption.
This website illustrates how the television became a popular activity and its power over the daily lives of Americans. It describes the networks- NBC, CBS, and ABC, who were the only networks shown in the 1950s'-1960's. The political use of television is also portrayed in this website as many tried to have their voices heard - whether Republican or Democrat - at conventions. News was very popular as television slowly replaced the radio. It also displays the business profits made from television as the amount of advertisers went from $58 million to $1.5 billion.
In addition to products like the television, how did the Golden Age bring about economic changes and how was it easily available to all kinds of customers? (Bahareh Mehrizi) The Golden Age was followed at the end of WWII when capitalism, economic expansion, stable prices, low unemployment and rising standards of living became present until 1973. Between 1946 and 1960, the American gross national product doubled which benefited the ordinary citizens. In addition, innovations such as television, air conditioning, automatic dishwashers, long distance phone calls, and jet air travel became available to common people with reasonable prices. How did television promote peace in the 195O's and what are its benefits? (Lizel Mendoza)
By displaying shows that portrayed the idea of a healthy and happy society, the world of television distracted American audiences from controversial ideas. Illustrating TV shows suitable for people of all ages, the importance of family togethernes and freedom started to become a tight correlation. Advertisers helped promoted peace by promoting their own products. Everything shown through the notable box-shaped screen with antennas on the top meant that one must have it in order to experience the true essence of freedom. As the demand for materials went up, the economy grew as well.
Sources: Give Me Liberty, Second Edition, Eric Foner
A New Ford
How did the automobile shape American suburban life? (Yoni Carnice)
With the help of the interstate highway system, regular Americans were able to travel long distances for vacation and commute to distant locations for work. As a result, motels, drive-in movie theaters, and fast food establishments began to emerge in American society. The car became of a symbol of freedom for the regular American, and the "open road" made many feel as if they were modern versions of western pioneers. http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/world/A0861340.html
The mass production spurred the growth of suburbia because automobiles allowed Americans to commute much farther than before. The end of a lot of public transportation also led many Americans to purchase a vehicle for their family. The car opened up more opportunities because there were less traveling restrictions. In response, state and local governments started road-building projects. http://west.stanford.edu/cgi-bin/pager.php?id=89
suburban life in San Leandro
What is a new Ford and what does it reveal about American society during this time? (Derek Guterres)
A new ford was a Chrysler or Chevrolet and it seemed essential in order to enjoy the benefits of freedom. It shows how the American society was becoming more materialistic and were able to afford more things. A car, home and television set, became what sociologists called "the standard consumer package" of the 1950s. The new car basically shows how people can actually afford these things and it became part of typical family life. By the 1960s, 80 percent of American families owned at least one car and 14 percent of them had two or more. Most of the cars were manufactured in the US, and most of the families owned one showing how it became a standard of living. These cars reflected American lifestyles during this time because it reflected how most American's lived and how it was essential in their lives. What kind of manufacturers were most successful during this time and what did they do? Name a few companies. (Derek Guterres)
Auto manufacturers and oil companies rapidly increased to the high ranks of corporate America. Detroit was a home to immense auto factories. The River Rouge complex contained 62,000 employees and Williow Run contained 42,000. In the long run, because much of federal money was given to the Sunbelt (which was mainly focused in the south and southwest) and taken away from the North and Midwest, the old industrial heartland had suffered. However, because of the boom in the automobile industry, with the demand for steel, rubber and other products, the region's prosperity was saved and it continued to prosper. The booming automible industry and oil companies generated much money and provided products needed in the American society.
How did cars change Americans' daily lives? (Marilen Atienza)
The automobile changed Americans' traveling habits. It was now possible for them to vacation long-distance by car and commute to work. This lead to an alteration of American landscape. Motels, drive-in movie theaters, and roadside eating establishments were invented to accompany the driving fad. The car symbolized the identification of freedom with individual mobility and private choice. Advertisements were constantly reminding Americans the freedom of the "open road".
Women at Work and at Home
What was the typical suburban family like, and what were the expected roles of women in this type of family? (Yoni Carnice)
The male earned all or most of the income for the family. Even though the numbers of wage-earning women increased, many wives took care of household duties. Films, television, and advertisements emphasized the importance of marriage for the American women. Married couples were now younger, divorced less frequently, and had more children. This resulted in the "baby boom" that increased the American population by nearly 30 million during the 1950s. The typical family highlighted the differences in American and Communist society, where a large amount of women worked. The new family was less patriarchal, and focused on personal fulfillment through shared consumption, leisure activities, and sexual pleasure. How were women affected after WWII? (Derek Guterres)
Women lost most of their industrial jobs after WWII. Women were expected to raise the family and carry out the American way of life. After WWII, women that worked outside of the home, worked for low-salary, nonunion jobs like clerical, sales and service labor. Most women did not have well paying jobs or manufacturing positions. There was a large drop in female employment after WWII, and because of the drop more women came out and the number of women at work increased. By 1955, the women working actually surpassed those that were working during WWII. However, the goals of women's work changed. The modern woman was believed to work only a part time job in order to support the family, but they were expected not to pull a family out of poverty or pursue self goals or a career. The wages of working women in 1960 were only 60 percent of that earned by men.
http://history.sandiego.edu/gen/st/~cg3/pagefour.html
This website talks about how women were affected by the coming back of men from WWII, and how they lost their jobs to men. This website has a sympathetic view towards these women because they were about to lose their jobs.There was basically no feminine response to this firing of women. The website states that some women were happy to leave and left for various reasons such as fulfilling pre-war actions such as marriage or pregnancy, going back home because they belonged there, or because the American society viewed women as those who belong in the home. However some women continued to work and received pay cuts and even denominations. According to this website, 75 percent of the women stated that they would continue to work. Despite the inequalities that the women faced from price cuts and lay offs, these actions gave way to the Civil Right movements int the 1950s. Below is a picture of a women after WWII that was laid off. What happened to feminism?(Derek Guterres)
Feminism seems to have disappeared from American life. However if it was seen, it could be considered as evidence of some sort of mental disorder. Well-known psychologists stated that the unhappiness of individual women or the desire to work for wages rooted from the inability to accept the maternal instict. It seems that American society had started to drift back towards the idea of a woman's only place is in the home. The idea of domestic life as a refuge and a full-time motherhood as a women's job has been present throughout much of American history, but in post war-suburbs, people were close to realizing this.
A Segregated Landscape
How was segregation present in 1950s suburbia? (Yoni Carnice)
Even though suburbia gave off the image of freedom, racial segregation was still present. As late as the 1990s, nearly 90 percent of suburban whites lived in segregated communities with non-white populations below 1 percent. Much of this was due to decisions by government, real-estate developers, banks, and residents. Federal agencies after the war continued to insure mortgages that barred resale of houses to non-whites, which financed housing segregation. Even though the Supreme Court declared these provisions legally unenforceable, banks and private developers did not allow non-whites from the suburbs and the government refused to subsidize their mortgages except in segregated enclaves. William Levitt's communities did not allow blacks to rent or purchase homes. He eventually allowed non-whites after a lawsuit, but this took a while.
How did the home in the suburbs become, "the center of freedom?" (Lizel Mendoza)
Moving into the suburbs promoted Americanization, which cut residents off from ethnic communities and bringing them fully into the world of mass consumption.
Public Housing & Urban Renewal
(David Hau)
Why did the Housing Act of 1949 fail to truly provide a “decent home for every American family?”
The Housing Act was established with a low ceiling on the income of residents, since the commercial housing industry wanted to keep government out of the competition for the middle class market. White middle-class neighborhoods had no desire to have public housing constructed near their residencies and, as a result, the 800,000 houses allotted under this program mostly went towards segregated neighborhoods. This had the unintended effect of keeping poverty isolated in these communities and reinforcing the practice of segregation.
How was the process of racial exclusion a self-reinforcing one?
The lives of underprivileged blacks, Latinos, and other immigrant groups were often subject to violent change. With the introduction of “urban renewal,” wherein the government supported destruction of urban neighborhoods in order to construct housing for the white middle and upper classes, members of races that had previously resided in these areas were increasingly driven out. With nowhere to go and few job opportunities, new slums were continuously formed. White members of the middle class often sought to bar other races from entering their suburban neighborhoods, as they believed that house prices would drop with the introduction of slum-like elements. With the living conditions of these races staying relatively low, poverty and destitution became an inescapable element of life.
The Divided Society
(Dhruv Jhigan)
How did any non-white presence in suburban neighborhoods lower the quality of life?
-Suburbanization caused a huge conflict in regards to the presence of blacks and whites in the same neighborhood. During 1950 to 1970, about 7 million whites left the urban cities for the suburbs, which is an outlying district of a city. Then, nearly 3 million blacks took this opportunity to head to the North. This increased the size of urban ghettos. Racial discrimination was still alive and active and many blacks still could not afford good houses due to lack of education or employment. This left the poor blacks trapped in ghettos, which was seen by society as places of crime, poverty, and welfare. Suburban homes were the emblem of freedom for the family’s investments and any presence of blacks seemed to lower the quality of life and destroy property values. It was said in Life magazine by a white suburbanite to a black neighbor, “he’s probably a nice guy, but every time I see him, I see $2,000 drop off the value of my house”.
What was “block-busting”? (Dhruv Jhigan)
-Residential segregation raised the idea of blockbusting, a tactic of real-estate brokers who exaggerated warnings of a impending influx of non-whites, to alarm and persuade white residents to sell their homes quickly. Due to this, some all white neighborhoods became all-minority enclaves rather than places where members of different races lived side by side.
Internet Source on Blockbusting during the 1950s: http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/147.html
- This source is saying that real-estate agents and speculators try to turnover white-owned property and homes to African Americans. It is also called “panic peddling” and causes the expansions of African Americans into neighborhoods that constantly denied them. African American subagents were hired to walk or drive through changing areas soliciting business and otherwise behaving in such a manner as to provoke and exaggerate white fears. Although this type of segregation might seem unjust, this technique had a few benefits. It would help African Americans move into rejected areas and they were able to purchase suburban homes for a fairly cheaper price.
- Even in the media, ads were separated for both colored housing and white housing. There were many attempts made to stop blockbusting, such as the series of ordinances during the 1970s that prevented the placement of “For Sale” and related signs on residential property. It was later ruled unconstitutional. Many other measures were made, such as the promotions of home-equity insurance plans, coalition of groups like “Save Our Neighborhoods/Save Our City”, etc.
The End of Ideology
Selling Free Enterprise
How did popular symbols contribute to the advertisement industry as a part of “selling of free enterprise”? (Mitra Shokri)
The “selling of free enterprise greatly involved corporate advertising. The Advertising Council was convinced that ads represented “a new weapon in the world-wide fight for freedom” and therefore invoked cherished symbols like the Statue of Liberty and the Liberty Bell in the service of “competitive free enterprise”.
Whywas “free enterprise” important in the Golden Age? (Mitra Shokri)
The “free enterprise” was only available in the United States and Europe .The “free enterprise” encouraged people to start businesses and stimulate the economy. President Truman added the freedom of enterprise to the three freedoms in American way of life. The “selling of free enterprise” involved corporate advertising, school programs, newspaper editorials, and civic activities.
This is an example of an advertisement in 1950s using such symbol as the statue of liberty to sell a product. (Mitra Shokri) http://nefe.danielsfund.org/free_enterprise/section_one/fes.html
The source explains why free enterprise is so important and how starting your own business is a very important freedom. Owning your own business that is not regulated by the government is beneficial to the consumer, the owner, and the economy. Free enterprise was important to all aspects of American life in the 1950s.
People's Capitalism
Why was free enterprise seen as the most important right in order for the ordinary American to achieve full-fledged freedom? (Dhruv Jhigan)
-Large corporations dominated key sectors in the American society. Most Americans had been deeply suspicious of big businesses, recalling the term robber barons of whom would manipulate politics, suppress economic competition, and treated workers unjustly. People’s capitalism became a rising term. It required everyone’s attention to stop this economy from falling into the wrong hands. It was even more crucial since in the 1950s, about 4.5 million Americans owned shares of stock. By the mid 1960s, it had grown to 25 million. The capitalist marketplace had to become a huge part of the American economy and should be taken care of through just means.
-It was a series of impromptu exchanges between US Vice President Richard Nixon and Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev. It was a meeting that occurred in numerous locations but primarily in the kitchen of a suburban house. It was over the issue of providing the citizens of both countries with good food and shelter. The debate soon escalated into communism vs. capitalism. Basically, Nixon showed how America was able to provide its citizens with abundance in food, whereas the Russian’s were not.
The Libertarian Conservatives
What was libertarian conservatism, and how did it differ from new conservatism? (Katrina Torres)
Libertarian conservatism was more similar in nature to the generic definition of the term, “conservatism.” Vehemently voiced by the economist Milton Friedman, libertarian conservatism decried government intervention in the economy and in people’s lives. According to Friedman, the best economy was one that ran without the hindrance of New Deal legislature, and the best society, was one where people were free to make decisions for themselves. In contrast to this train of thought, new conservatism demanded more regulation on human behavior and a return to the traditional Christian values. According to new conservatists, although the government should mostly keep out of the economy, they should also work to maintain the moral character of all of the country’s citizens.
Excerpts From Milton Friedman’s, Captalism and Freedom: http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/ipe/friedman.htm
1. What were liberal conservatives against?
The liberal conservatives were against the New Deal ideas and wanted less government control, more individual autonomy, and unregulated capitalism.
2. Who was the author of Capitalism and Freedom and what was it about?
Milton Friedman published it in 1962 which identified the free market as the necessary foundation for individual liberty.
3. Where did the ideas of the libertarian conservatives spread to?
They grew in the South and West with businessmen who desired to pursue economic fortunes free of government regulation.
The New Conservatism
What is New Conservatism? Who were some of the most prominent new conservatives - what did they stand for? (Akhil Puri)
New Conservatism represents a new brand of thought that became much more common in the 1950s. They believed that the world needed to arm itself morally and intellectually rather than militarily to combat Communism. Writers Russell Kirk and Richard Weaver are well-known new conservatives. They stated that the West should return to a "civilization based on values grounded into the Christian religion and in timeless notions of good and evil." In other words, they endorsed morals and insisted that we do "good" things rather than do morally wrong things for the sake of combating Communism.
The Eisenhower Era
Ike and Nixon
Why did Ike choose the Republicans over the Democrats? Why did Eisenhower appeal to the public so much? (Akhil Puri)
Eisenhower could have become the presidential candidate for both the Republicans and the Democrats. He decided to run for the Republican bid because he feared that a particular Senator from Ohio (Robert A. Taft) would win the Republican nomination and he would lead the United States back towards isolationism. He appealed to the public simply because he was a war hero who lead the allied forces into Nazi territory on D-Day. He was not considered a politician but rather a man of integrity with an impressive war record.
The 1952 Campaign
Who were the candidates in the 1952 election? What were the party platforms? What was the outcome? (Akhil Puri)
The 1952 campaign was the first in which television was used to promote party candidates. Dwight D. Eisenhower chose to run for the Republicans and made Nixon his running mate. The Democrats nominated Adlai Stevenson (who ran alongside vice president John Sparkman); unfortunately, they were no match against Eisenhower's popularity. The Republicans won a landslide victory, winning 83% of the electoral votes and 55.1% of the popular vote.
Eisenhower repeatedly mentioned that he would get us out of the war in Korea and that he would clean out the White House (most likely because of the scandals and bribes unveiled throughout the Truman administration). Anti-communism, corruption, the war, and balanced budgets were the major issues of the campaign.
Q1: What was Eisenhower’s attitude and policy towards/against the New Deal? A1: Even though Eisenhower cut back government spending, including the military budget in favor of businesses, he never removed the core policies of the New Deal. He even said, “Should any political party attempt to abolish Social Security, unemployment insurance, and eliminate labor laws and farm programs, you would not hear of that party again in our political history.” Eisenhower worked to not only protect basic New Deal programs, but to expand on them. In 1955, millions of agricultural workers became eligible for the first time for Social Security. And he didn’t reduce the size or scope of government.
Eisenhower’s Modern Republicanism is often compared to FDR’s New Deal, but this article in the March 10, 1957 edition of the St. Petersburg Times says otherwise. This article describes the statements of Commerce Secretary Sinclair Weeks who defends Modern Republicanism by saying: “This administration’s actions are different in spirit from the New Deal practices of its predecessors, who tried to pack the Supreme Court, seize the steel mills and draft strikers into the Army.”
Q2: What is the difference between “free enterprise” and “mixed economy” government? Which one did Eisenhower use? A2: Free enterprise government is an economic system characterized by private ownership of property and productive resources, the profit motive to stimulate production and competition among businesses. Free enterprise is also known as capitalism. Mixed economy is the philosophy that the government played a major role in planning economic activity. In other words, a mixed economy would have both private ownership and government-controlled businesses. Eisenhower used the mixed economy idea. He presided over the building of the 41,000-mile interstate highway system.
Q3: How was “mixed economy” different in America than it was in Europe? A3: European countries like Britain and France expanded their welfare states and nationalized key industries like steel, shipbuilding, and transportation through government subsidies. America had a limited welfare state and left most of their businesses in private hands rather than the government.
However, it seems that both the president and the public were displeased with this limited welfare state. In a statement by President Eisenhower upon signing the Welfare and Pension Plans Disclosure Act on August 29, 1958, “I have approved the Welfare and Pension Plans Disclosure Act because it establishes a precedent of federal responsibility in this area. It does little else.” According to Eisenhower, the bill does not protect all of the 85 million workers, and Congress failed to take any action. He goes on to say, “I am sure that the public is as disappointed with it as I am.” He then goes on to list some of the bill’s shortcomings:
1. It requires only summary statements of many important aspects of the financial operations of these plans, making it possible to conceal many abuses.
2. There is no agency of government authorized to provide uniform interpretation of the bill's technical terms. The chaos that will result is obvious. The failure to designate an agency which administrators can consult for reliable and authentic opinions, and for meaningful and uniform report forms, enables corrupt administrators to hide abuses, blocks beneficiaries from receiving adequate information, and subjects administrators to uncertainties in compliance.
3. The bill's reliance solely upon individual employees to compel compliance through court proceedings is most unrealistic. Experience has shown that employee suits alone are inadequate as enforcement remedies. Unaided by governmental authority to conduct investigations and institute litigation, individual employees, without financial resources or legal experience, can be easily intimidated, made subject to reprisals and discouraged from taking effective action.
4. The bill fails to give the Secretary of Labor either investigatory or enforcement powers with respect to reports filed with him. Thus, he is for all practical purposes powerless to uncover abuses.
5. There is no provision for dealing directly with the most flagrant abuses, such as embezzlement and kickbacks, once they are uncovered. Yet this is certainly the kind of protection that the beneficiaries and the public have a right to expect from this legislation.
(Megha Koduri)
Q1: How did the Social Contract benefit both the workers and the employers?
A1: Employers benefited by unions agreeing to regard capital investment, plant location, and output in management's hands, and agreed to prevent unauthorized "wildcat" strikes. Employees benefited from wage increases, private pension plans, health insurance, and automatic adjustments to pay to reflect rises in the cost of living.
Q2: What range of people benefited from the Social Contract?
A2: Workers who were part of unions benefited the most with the social contract, which was made by a union-employer promise essentially. Employers benefited from the compromise as well, with unions limiting strikes and allowing the employers to have control over captial investment, plant location, and output. Ununionized workers also benefited. Though the social contract did not apply to them, it brought benefits. The social contract allowed for a success in setting a minimum wage, which most nonunion workers earned. Though they benefited far less from the social contract, it still led to prosperity even to the non-unionized workers. It seems that the social contract benefited all classes of people while it lasted.
Q3: What led to the demise of the Social Contract?
A3: Nonunion employers fought against labor organization and "groups like the national Association of Manufacturers and viewed unions as unacceptable infringement on the power of employers." many companies and firms shifted jobs to the less unionized suburbs and south. The see industry sought to tighten work rules and imit wage increases in an attempt to boost profits battered by the previous recession. This led to a steelworker strike, and "beat back the proposed changes." Q4: How important was the Taft-Hartley act in assisting to lighten employer-worker relations? A4: the Taft-Hartley act in 1947 reduced labor militancy, lessening the anger workers harbored towards their employers. Overall, this act, in combination with the Social Contract of the 50's eased the labor conflict of the two previous decades. Primary Source ( image ) : http://img517.imageshack.us/img517/3373/tafthartlleybakedtoordego6.gif Web Source:http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h1667.html and http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/USAhartley.htm
Web Source Summary: Both Sources give a general breakdown of the Act, but say little about its effects or how it was recieved. However, strong wording of the first srouce emphasizes that strictness that was brought on by this Act.
What was the social contract, and why did it cause a massive uprising among non-unionized laborers? (David Hau)
The social contract of the 1950’s (not to be confused with the social contracts proposed by Hobbes and Rousseau in their respective philosophical texts) was an agreement between businesses and unions that involved unions respecting the authority of businesses, and businesses in return maintaining higher standards of payment and work conditions for union members. This practice angered non-unionized laborers, whose numbers had increased dramatically since the passage of the Taft-Hartley Act in 1947, because they did not receive the benefits that their unionized counterparts received. This would lead to a new kind of labor strife between unionized and non-unionized laborers, which would be partly alleviated by the raising of minimum wages for all workers.
Massive Retaliation
(David Hau)
Who was John Foster Dulles, and how did his proposal for dealing with the Soviet Union lead to elevated cautiousness regarding a three-letter acronym synonymous with anger?
John Foster Dulles was the Secretary of State in the Eisenhower administration, and he proposed an update to the policy of containment that included “massive retaliation” in the form of nuclear attacks on the Soviet Union should they attempt to make advances on American allies. This statement was widely criticized as “brinksmanship,” an obvious attempt to court disaster. The three-letter acronym, “MAD,” or “mutual assured destruction” became a focal point of the dealings between the United States and the Soviet Union, since both sides wished to avoid nuclear warfare at all costs. MAD can basically be summarized as, “whoever shoots first, dies second.”
In Eisenhower’s Inaugural address, what statement made Eisenhower rethink about his plan of action towards Russia and why?
“Freedom is pitted against slavery; lightness against dark” is the quote that Eisenhower thought was necessary in order to take certain actions against Russia. Although, at the end of the Korean War and the death of Stalin, it had convince him that he would be able to solve matters in diplomatic terms.
What actions were taken place by Russians and the United States?
The new Soviet Leader, Nikita Khrushchev who was at the first Summit conference actually called on for a peaceful coexistence. It was to make an easier transition after the Cold War. Many say it was to “thaw” and allow both sides to be neutral or even on good terms with each other, but there were times when the Soviet Union did not ease many conservative Republicans such as the incident with the Soviet troops putting down an anticommunist uprising in Hungary. 1958, the two superpowers actually agreed to a voluntary halt to the testing of nuclear weapons. This pause lasted until 1961. Suddenly many events caused both sides to feel tension towards each other. Such as a spy that worked for the U.S that the Soviets caught and was bought as evidence, Eisenhower denied the fact that there was a spy the first time around.
http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/RUSkhrushchev.htm This websites details more about Nikita Khrushchev as he becomes the new Soviet Union leader. It reveals is action plan and specially talk about the meeting and how he actually canceled the Paris Summit Conference in 1960 when a plan was shot down over the Soviet Union. The tension that are between the Soviet and U.S during those times reveal the hardships of the Cold War and how it has effected the relationship of both these countries. The Emergence of the Third World (Jason Chong)
What is the Third world?
The "Third World" is a term to describe the countries that were not aligned with the two powers; communist East and capitalist West. They desired to find their own model of development between Soviet economic planning and the capitalist free market. The Bandung conference announced the emergence of a new force in global affairs that contained a majority of the world's population.
What did the phrase "Winds of change", said by British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan, refer to?
"Winds of change" referred to the massive decolonization of the European empire post-WWII. This started with India and Pakistan achieving independence in 1947, followed by Ghana, a British Gold colony in West Africa, ten years later. Soon after many more nations gained independence. This scared the US because these new nations became power vacuums that communist could move into, but most new nations tried to stay neutral during the Cold War.
(Rhea Vera)
What was the Bandung Conference?
- The Bandung Conference brought leaders of twenty-nine Asian and African nations together in Indonesia in 1955 and seemed to announce the emergence of a new force in global affairs (representing a majority of the world's population). These countries were unable to avoid the strong effects of the political, military, and economic contest of the Cold War. - The countries included: Afghanistan, Cambodia, China, Egypt, Ethiopia, the Gold Coast (Ghana), Iran, Iraq, Japan, Jordan, Laos, Lebanon, Liberia, Libya, Nepal, the Philippines, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria, Thailand, Turkey, the Vietnam Democratic Republic, South Vietnam (later reunified with the Democratic Republic of Vietnam) and Yemen (Republic of Yemen).The Conference was chaired by Indonesian Prime Minister Ali Sastroamidjojo and Indonesian President Sukarno made an opening address entitled "Let a New Asia and a New Africa be Born".
- After two days of plenary sessions, the conference was divided into three committees, namely political, economic and cultural. And they deliberated behind closed door for five days during which they discussed such issues as national sovereignty, racism, nationalism and struggles against colonialism, world peace and economic and cultural cooperation among the participating countries. - The conference reached consensus on the mutual interests and some issues of major concern to the Asian African countries and a "Final Communiqu" was adopted the contents of which included economic cooperation, cultural cooperation, human rights and self-determination, the issue of people in dependent countries, other issues, promotion of world peace and cooperation as well as the adoption of the Declaration on Promotion of World Peace and Cooperation and listed ten principles in handling international relations. The spirit of unity of the Asian and African people, opposing imperialism and colonialism, struggle for the defense of national independence and world peace and the promotion of friendship among the peoples as demonstrated at the Conference is known as the "Bandung Spirit". The Conference enhanced the unity and cooperation among the Asian and African countries, inspired the people in the colonies to struggle for national liberation and played a significant role in promoting the anti-imperialist and anti-colonialist struggle of the Asian and African people and in consolidating their unity.
(facts are from: http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2005-04/20/content_435929.htm)
How did decolonization affect the United States, communists, and noncommunists?
- Decolonization presented the U.S. with a complex set of choices by creating "power vacuums" in the former colonies into which Americans feared communists would move. The Soviet Union strongly supported the dissolution of Europe's overseas empires. Communists participated and supported movements for colonial independence. Noncommunist leaders saw socialism as the best route to achieving economic independence and narrowing social inequalities brought about by imperialism. Most of the new Third World powers hoped to remain neutral in the Cold War by not aligning themselves with either major "power bloc".
How did the American struggle for independence influence others?
- Many nationalists admired the United States and saw the struggle as a model for their own struggles. Ho Chi Minh, a communist leader of the Vietnamese movement against rule by France, modeled his 1945 proclamation of nationhood on the American Declaration of Independence. He requested that President Truman establish a protectorate over Vietnam to guarantee its independence.
This is Ho Chi Minh's telegram to President Truman. http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/HoChiMinhTelegramToTruman1946.png
This Source states that the Third World Was created, shaped and was effected compleatly by this Cold War. It was a great paradox of the War because it was a time of great peace for the European Nations while Nations in Asia, Africa, and The Middle East were involved the violence and conflict.
What role did the Third World play in the Cold War?
The Third world was the main focus of of the Cold war. The policy of containment easily slid over into opposition to any government
Who were Jacobo Arbenz and Mohammed Mossadegh?
These two men were leaders of Guatemala and Iran respectively. They were determined to reduce foreign corporations' over their companies economies.
What was the Eisenhower doctrine?
This was a doctrine, issued in 1957, where the US pledged to defend Middle Eastern Government threatened by communism.
A political cartoon that believes that Eisenhower did not focus on the home front
Origins of the Vietnam War(Mariel Hernandez) 1. In a nutshell what was some of the causes of the Vietnam War? o Anticommunism movement and ideals.
o World War II and the question of what would happen to the French colony Indochina.
o Division of Geneva Accords
o Ho Chi Minh using guerilla warfare tactics.
o The Diem regime targeting the South with his campaign called “denounce the communists”.
2. Why did France have no alternative but to agree to Vietnamese independence? Ike declined to send in American troops when France wanted to avoid defeat and later he rejected National Security Council’s advice to use nuclear weapons.
3. How did America become involved with the French during mid-1940s? Anticommunism led to the U.S. becoming more involved. And Truman enforced a policy that made the Eisenhower administration funneled billions of dollars in aid to strengthen French efforts.
4. What were the effects of American leaders favoring deals with reliable military regimes rather than democratic governments? Although pervious involvement with events in Guatemala, Iran, and Vietnam brought success it was a different scenario when military governments succeeded Arbenz. They decided to change social reforms bringing three decades of depression causing about 2 hundred thousand Guatemalan causalities. And further involvement would lead to the most disastrous decision of entanglement in American history. I decided to analyze the first question because it focused on the actual war rather than who sided with who however, it talks about how America favored Prime minister Diem from South Vietnam. The first picture is of Ho Chi Minh the ruler of North Vietnam after Vietnam was split due to the Geneva Accords. Ho Chi Minh used guerrilla tactics against South Vietnam and Diem launched his campaign against communist which were mainly located in North however, he also targeted Buddhists. This also connects with the ideals of anticommunism and how it had such a big impact on not only America but other countries internationally as well. Below is a picture of Eisenhower and Diem shaking hands after Diem gets off his flight to America. And here is a link to a picture of the two ridding in a car also during Diem's trip. http://www.travelblog.org/Photos/4484622
Why did Eisenhower seem like the perfect leader for society in the 1950s?
It was because he was a fatherly figure that seemed the perfect leader for the placid society of the 1950s, form which consensus was the dominant ideal and McCarthyism was identified as disloyalty.
How did some intellectuals feel about this freedom, which was more associated with freedom in private pleasures, not the public sphere?
Some intellectuals wondered whether the celebration of affluence and the either-or mentality of the Cold War obscured the extent to which the US fell short of freedom. Modern mass society, some writers felt, inevitably produced loneliness and anxiety, causing mankind to yearn for stability and authority, not freedom. Some thought Russians demonstrated a greater ability to sacrifice for common public goals.
Who were some people who opposed the newly defined "freedom" of the US during this time, and what were their works/arguments?
In 1957, political scientist Hans J. Morgenthau noted that free enterprise had created "new accumulations" of power "as dangerous to the freedom of the individual as the power of the government had ever been".
Also, Sociologist C. Wright Mills challeneged the self-satisfied vision of democratic pluralism of mainstream political science in the 1950s and discussed a "power elite"-- an interlocking directorate of corporate leaders, politicians, and military men whose domination of government and society had made political democracy obsolete. Similarly, The Lonely Crowd (1950), sociologist David Riesman described Americans as "other directed" conformists who locked the inner resources to lead truly independent lives. The Affluent Society
The Affluent Society (1958) by economist John Kenneth Galbraith asks what kind of nation neglects investment schools, parks & public services while producing more good for advertising? The Organization Man (1956) by William Whyte and The Hidden Persuaders (1957) by Vance Packard are also works of criticism which criticize the monotony of modern work, the emptiness of suburban life, and the pervasive influence of advertising.
(In association to the above question, the following outside source is an opinion story for TIME magazine written Jun. 02, 1958)
OPINION: The Affluent Society
This opinion article concerning economist John Kenneth Galbraith's The Affluent Society discusses the general idea of what the book is about: basically that Adam Smith's capitalistic economy is now "obsolete" because, at the time the theory was expressed was a time of economic scarcity. Now, however (says Galbraith), society spends too much time trying to obtain material items they do not need and thus the "private" sphere has disrupted the "social balance" by owning way too many useless, pretty items that lack any contribution to the public sphere. This TIME magazine article argues that, why Galbraith points the finger at the government's lack of control over society, he fails to generate a concrete solution to the issue. I like how the article ended, saying that, "Galbraith has found it easier to sketch the problem than provide the answers." (Read more: http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,893998,00.html#ixzz0krGh3AeF)
Did critic of mass society make accomplish relaying their ideals?
No, criticism of mass society failed to dent widespread complacency about the American way
Rebels Without a Cause
[Maria David]
::What did J.D Salinger's 1951 novel Catcher in the Rye and the 1955 films Blackboard Jungle and Rebel Without a Cause highlight? -The novels and films highlighted the alienation of at least some young people from the world of adult respectability.
;;Catcher in the Rye highlights the feelings that may have been present in teenagers during the time, and through Catcher in the Rye readers see into the mind of Holden Caulfield.
"Caulfield's self-destruction over a period of days forces one to contemplate society's attitude toward the human condition. Salinger's portrayal of Holden, which includes incidents of depression, nervous breakdown, impulsive spending, sexual exploration, vulgarity, and other erratic behavior, have all attributed to the controversial nature of the novel." (http://www.levity.com/corduroy/salinger1.htm)
;;The Films Blackboard Jungle and Rebel Without a Cause continue to highlight the rebelliousness going on amongst teens.
"Crucially, as a 1950s melodrama, Rebel Without a Cause calls attention to the instability of conventional gender and social relations. Its critique of society is biting because it targets exactly those institutions of mass social or bourgeois life – family, home, school – meant to be uplifting, stable, and safe but that can turn out to be alienating and victimising." (http://archive.sensesofcinema.com/contents/cteq/07/42/rebel-without-cause.html) (www2.warwick.ac.uk/.../ rebel_without_a_cause.jpg) Rebels Without A Cause
(Link to the official website of the off-broadway production)
::Why did the Senate committee hold hearings in 1954? What did publishers do to head off federal regulation?
-The Senate committee held hearings in 1954 to discuss whether or not violent comic books caused criminal behavior among young people. Publishers adopted a code of conduct for their industry that strictly limited the portrayal of crime and violence in comic books.
::What was cultural life for a teenager like in the 1950s?
-Teenagers began to wear leather jackets, danced to rock and roll music that brought about hard-driving ryhthms and sexually provocative movements of black musicians and dancers to enthusiastic white audiences.
::What extended the costumer culture into the most intimate realms of life in the 1960s? What did it offer men?
-The rise of the Playboy magazine that reached a circulation of over 1 million copies per month was what extended the costumer culture into the most intimate realms of life in the 1960s. It offered men a fantasy world of sexual gratification outside the family's confines.
::Who were the Beats? Who coined the term "beats"?
-The Beats were a small group of poets and writers that railed against mainstream culture. Novelist Jack Keroauc coined the term "beat" which was a play on "beaten down" and "beatified."
::What did Jack Keroauc's book On the Road recount?
-It recounted its main character's aimless wanderings across the American landscape.
::Who was Allen Ginsberg? What happened in San Francisco that made him nationally known?
-Allen Ginsberg was a beat poet who wrote Howl, a book that protested against materialism and conformism. In San Francisco (1956) Ginsberg's book was confiscated and the police arrested people bookstore owners for selling his "obscene" work.
::What did the Beats celebrate by rejecting the work ethic, the "desperate materialism" of the middle class, and the militarization of American life by the Cold War?
-They celebrated impulsive action, immediate pleasure, and sexual experimentation.
Origins of the Movement and The Legal Assault on Segregation
(Alexander Moll)
1. What did “An American Dilemma” suggest about racial inequality?
The challenge to racial inequality would arise in the North because that was where blacks had far greater opportunities for political organization.
2. How did half of the nation’s black families live during the 1950’s?
Half of the nations blacks lived in poverty and they were segregated in the US. Because of labor contracts that linked promotions and firings to seniority, non-white workers who had joined the industrial labor force later than whites, lost their jobs first in times of economic downturn.
3. What did the LULAC (League of United Latin American Citizens) do?
They challenged restrictive housing, employment discrimination, and the segregation of Latino students. They won an important victory in 1946 in the case of Mendez v. Westminster, when the CA Supreme Court ordered the schools of Orange County desegregated.
According to http://www.npc.umich.edu/poverty/, poverty for sub-groups such as blacks was considerably higher than whites. Also, black families headed by women had the highest poverty rates among all the families.
The Freedom Movement
Origins of the Movement
The Legal Assault on Segregation
The Brown Case (Julia Wrona)
Why did Oliver Brown go to the Supreme Court? -Oliver Brown went to the Supreme Court because his daughter was forced to walked across railroad tracks to go to school even though there was a school near her house but she couldn’t go to it because it was an all white school. People agreed with the lawsuit Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas because they could not understand how America was said to have freedom, justice, and democracy but they would not give equal rights to Blacks. The new chief justice, Earl Warren, agreed and the court decision decided that segregation in public education was a violation of the equal protection of the laws guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment. This decision was hailed by black press as a “second Emancipation Proclamation” because it stopped segregation in schools.
The Montgomery Bus Boycott (Julia Wrona)
How was the Montgomery Bus Boycott started and what was the outcome? The Montgomery Bus Boycott was started when a black tailor’s assistant, Rosa Parks, refused to get up for a white person on the bus and was arrested on December 1, 1955. This unfair arrest sparked a boycott that blacks would not ride the bus until they had equal rights. After a year long boycott where people walked or took taxis rather then the bus the Supreme Court finally ruled in November 1956 that segregation in public transportation unconstitutional. This bus boycott was a turning point in postwar America because it launched the movement for racial justice as a nonviolent crusade based from the black churches in the South. Who was Rosa Parks? Rosa Parks was a black tailor’s assistant and a veteran of black politics. During the 1930s she took part in meetings that protested the conviction of the Scottsboro Boys. She also served as a secretary to E.D. Nixon, a local leader of NAACP. She also tried to vote in 1943 but was turned away because she failed the literacy test. After two more times she was finally allowed to vote, a big triumph in her city because only a few blacks could vote. Internet source: Rosa Parks was born in Tuskegee, Alabama with barely any civil rights given to her. When she was a child she heard the Klan ride at night and heard the lynches going on. After attending college she moved with her husband to Montgomery and joined the local NAACP to worked to improve lives of African Americans in the South. After the bus incident there was a formation of the Montgomery Improvement Association which called for the boycott of the city-owned bus company. After its success Mrs. Parks and her husband moved to Detroit and served on the staff if U.S. Representative John Conyers. After her death she was laid in state at the capitol, the first women and the second African American in history. http://www.achievement.org/autodoc/page/par0bio-1 http://www.bbc.co.uk/1xtra/tx/gallery/media/rosa_parks_405.jpg
The Daybreak of Freedom [Ali Giron]
What did the Montgomery bus boycott do? It was a turning point in history because it launched the movement for racial justice through a non-violence approach. In addition this movement the support of northern liberals and focused its attention of the nation’s racial policies. Lastly, it served as the marker for the emergence of Martin Luther King Jr. Why did King come to Montgomery? He came to become the pastor of a Baptist church but he became so much more. On the night of the protest meeting, King energized the people with his speech, talking about how they had suffered long enough and they were finally reaching out for their freedom. Why did the cardboard that was placed on a bus shelter on the day of Rosa Park's court appearance say "Don't ride the buses today. Don't ride it for freedom." ? The word freedom was one that was used in the black movement. It was used in the speeches given by civil rights leaders and in the place cards of the struggles of all the soldiers. What were the different definitions of freedom?
Some people defined freedom as a very specific freedom like going to the public libraries while others defined it as legal equality, liberation from years of deference and fears of white, and freedom of the mind. Adults saw freedom as being able to enjoy the same political and economic opportunities that whites did as well as being served at counters and departments stores and to be addressed as "Mr.", "Miss", and "Mrs." as opposed to being referred to as "boy" and "auntie". Lastly, it meant making all the past wrongs, right. These wrongs included segregation, disenfranchisement, confinement to low-wage jobs, and the threat of violence.
The Leadership of King
What did King’s “I Have a Dream” speech do? It gave the people one clear definition of what the word 'freedom' meant. In addition, it promised the unfulfilled promise of emancipation. Website Link: http://www.lagcc.cuny.edu/ctl/mlk/dream.htm
How did the writings of Gandhi and Thoreau influence King? King read the works of Gandhi and Thoreau as well as the nonviolent protests of Racial Equality to help organize his philosophy of struggler where hate and evil must be met with evil and Christian love as well as a peaceful demands for change. He declared that no white person would be taken outside of their home to be lynched as the white people had done to the African Americans. How did King appeal to “white” America? He used the same approach that Frederick Douglass had which was stressing the protesters' love for their country and their devotion to national values. This freedom meant a whole new world for American society. King also drew from W. E. B. Du Bois' approach and linked the African American's struggle in America with the humiliation of the non-white people overseas. He asked, if Africa can have its freedom, why must 'black Americalag behind?'.
Massive Resistance
What were some of the means by which people resisted desegregation? (Francesca Rebosura)
There were a variety of ways whites resisted. One such way was through the Southern Manifesto, a document in which 82 of the 106 southern congressmen signed that denounced the Brown decision and called for the resistance of "forced integration." In addition, some states made it illegal for the NAACP to operate. Some went to more drastic measures, though. For instance, Virginia closed public schools that were ordered to integrate and offered money to white children so that they would be able to attend private school. Lastly, Georgia showed their resistance by changing their state flag in 1956 to the Confederate battle flag.
What was the Southern Christian Leadership and who took lead of it? (Sarah Creely)
A coalition of black ministers and civil rights activists and they pressed for desegregation. Martin Luther King took lead in 1956. Even though the movement was successful in popular motivation, what was wrong?
The Montgomery fathers only accepted the boycott’s demand after the Supreme Court ruling showed that local wouldn’t be able to overturn Jim Crow laws without national backing. But the white south refused to accept this. They still didn’t believe that blacks could get their rights at all. The only way would have to be with Washington helping them. What caused “massive resistance”?
The Supreme Court ruled in 1955 that desegregation should proceed “with all deliberate speed.” This though was very vague and unintentionally caused a campaign of resisting desegregation that ended up paralyzing most of the civil rights progression in the South.
Link:http://www.amren.com/ar/2008/02/05b-CitizensCouncil.jpg
This image shows a picture of a snake wrapped around a school with integration written on its body and a man with a halo but a stake with a nail in it behind his back, he represents the supreme court. and then there's fire above the snake. This image represents how southerners felt about the Supreme court forcing them to integrate their schools. They saw it as an act against them. What happened in the southern states that stopped desegregation? http://teacher.scholastic.com/scholasticnews/indepth/upfront/features/index.asp?article=f090307_TP. In this article it talks about Little Rock Central High School. Nine black students had tried to enter the school but the President had to use the federal troops to get them to go into the school. They then graduated from the school. Most southern states resented the ruling from the Brown vs. Board of Education of Topeka, which overturned the “separate but equal” principle est. in the Plessy vs. Ferguson case. Then in Washington, some senators and Congressmen signed the Southern Manifesto that denounced the Brown ruling and told southern states to keep fighting it.
(Eleanor LaBarbera)
1. Why did the Supreme Court ruling in the Brown case do almost no good?
The Montgomery’s city fathers only agreed to the boycott because of the Supreme Court ruling. It was clear that without national backing there would be no local effort to follow through with the ruling that was set forth. Washington would have to intervene if the blacks were ever to have the hope of gaining constitutional rights.
2. Why did nothing happen after the Supreme Court ruled that desegregation to proceed “with all deliberate speed”?
After the Supreme Court said, “with all deliberate speed” it was left up to the interpretation of the Southerners who did not want desegregation. They took this vague statement and turned it into another reason to stall black people gaining their rights known as the “massive resistance”
3. What was the Southern Manifesto?
The Southern Manifesto was signed by 82 out of the 106 southern congressmen as well as every southern senator with the exceptions of Lyndon B. Johnson, Albert Gore, and Estes Kefauver. The main purpose of the Southern Manifesto was to declare that the Brown decision was an abuse of judicial power and called for resistance against the forced integration.
4. What did Virginia do in order to support the massive resistance?
Virginia closed all of the public schools that were ordered to desegregate and only gave funding to white children so they would be able to attend private schools. A county in Virginia names Prince Edward County even went as far as to shut down all of their schools in 1959 until the Supreme Court ordered them to be reopened in 1964.
5. How did other states support the massive resistance?
Most other states just gave the white students the opportunity to choose whether or not they would attend a school where black students also attended, which was known as the “freedom of choice” plans. Another specific state’s resistance would be Georgia in that they incorporated the Confederate battle flag into their own state flag in 1956. Alabama and South Carolina followed Georgia’s example and took it one step further when they began flying the flag over the state capitol buildings.
Web source: http://www.vahistorical.org/civilrights/massiveresistance.htm
1. How did the Virginian Senator Harry F. Byrd, Sr. influence the massive resistance?
It was said that in 1954 Senator Byrd Sr. had control over Virginia politics and it was him who had started the massive resistance. He called for the Southern States to oppose segregation and was the one who had the idea to close down Southern schools in Virginia and give financial aide to the parents that were against segregation.
What happened with the first national civil rights law? (Sarah Creely)
Congress passed the law in 1957 and it targeted the denial of blacks to vote. But this law was not enforced very much and didn’t add very many voters to the polls How did southern schools react when they were forced to let blacks go to their school?
In 1956, a federal court ordered Autherine Lucy to be allowed to go to University of Alabama. But a mob stopped her from registering and in the end the board of trustees expelled her. Only in 1960’s were blacks finally allowed to go to the university. A year later, the Governor of Arkansas used the National Guard to prevent black students from going to school in Little Rock. Eisenhower then sent federal troops to that city that escorted black students into school. This showed that
How were Lyndon B. Johnson and Eisenhower different on the role of civil rights? (David Rasay) Johnson hoped to gain the Liberal support for his presidential campaign of 1960. He aided and strove for the passing of the first civil rights law since reconstruction in 1957. This law targeted the denial of black voting in the South, however with weak enforcement, it added few voters to the rolls.
President Ike, on the other hand, did not provide moral leadership for this new civil rights law. Eisenhower is known to have not cared for the civil rights movement, finding it distasteful he only asked Americans to abide by it. In another case displaying his dispassion, in a 1956 a federal court order asked Autherine Lucy to be admitted to the University of Alabama. However, mobs prevented her from registering and the school expelled her, without the intervention of Ike.
This political cartoon by Herblock further pointed Eisenhower’s unwillingness to act upon the urgent matter of the civil rights crisis (fire) even though he is the commander in chief (fireman chief). Much like his role with the Civil Rights Law of 1957, he plays a passive role in the cartoon.
Why was Eisenhower’s military display at Little Rock ineffective in integrating schools across the South? (David Rasay) Eisenhower’s use of the 101st Airborne Division was ineffective because the passion and motivation to support integration was not there. Some argue that Eisenhower only used such means to show off his power. These events in Little Rock showed that in the last instance, the federal government would not allow the flagrant violation of court orders. But because of the massive resistance met, the pace of movement slowed in the final years of the 1950s.
http://www.nps.gov/history/nr/TwHP/wwwlps/lessons/crandall/CRfacts2.htm
This document explores the specific details of the court orders and the experiences of the Little Rock Nine. In regards to the effectiveness of integration, It notes that the Little Rock School Board and Governor Faubus were very concentrated on avoiding desegregation and did almost anything to avoid that. The Governor went as far as to close the school to avoid segregation. These passionate actions when confronted by Eisenhower’s less-than-motivated solutions are what prevented a successful integration in the school system.
The Election of 1960
Kennedy and Nixon
What were the candidates for the presidential election of 1960? The Republicans decided to choose former Vice President Richard Nixon as their candidate while Democrats chose to go with John F. Kennedy.
Why were Protestants hesitant to vote for a Catholic? How did Kennedy respond to this? What was a sign that would put the issue of religion at rest? The Protestants feared that Kennedy would be required to support church doctrine on controversial public issues or to even an extreme extent, to follow the orders of the pope. In response to their fears, Kennedy addressed the issue by publicly stating, "I do not speak for my church on public matters and the church does not speak for me." A symbol that put the issue of Kennedy's religion to rest was when he was able to defeat Humphrey in the Democratic primary in the overwhelming Protestant West Virginia.
What evidence did Kennedy use to point out that the US had lost the sense of national purpose that was necessary to fight the Cold War? Kennedy's evidence consisted of the Soviet's success in putting Sputnik, the first earth satellite, into orbit and subsequently testing the first intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM).
Image shows the electoral ballot results of the closes Presidential Election in history.
The End of the 1960s
What did Eisenhower warn Americans about in his farewell speech? What were the American's reaction towards his warning?
He urged for Americans to think about the dangerous power of what he called the "military-industrial complex" - the conjunction of "an immense military establishment" with a "permanent arms industry" - with an influence felt in "every office" in every land. In response to his warning, few Americans felt the same concerns as he did and saw the alliance of the Defense Department and private industry as a source of jobs and national security rather than a threat to democracy.
How did Thomas Midgley have more impact on the atmosphere than any other organism?
Thomas MIdgley was a research scientist for General Motors who developed both leaded gasoline and chlorofluorocarbons. The leaded gasoline was found in the million of cars that made suburban life which were spewing toxic lead into the atmosphere. The toxic acid would then create a type of air pollution produced by cars called smog. Chlorofluorocarbons, used in air conditions, deodorants, and aerosol hair sprays, were releasing chemicals into the atmosphere that damaged the ozone layer, producing global warming and an increase to skin cancer.
The Sixties, 1960-1968
The Freedom Movement
The Rising Tide of Protest (Janani Ravikrishnan)
What was the Greensboro launch and what did it achieve? • There were 4 black students that entered a Woolworth’s department store and sat down for lunch in an area only for whites. They were told they would not be served, but relentlessly came back day after day for 5 months . In July Woolworth’s decided to serve black’s.
• It was a major achievement because the black people persevered and continued to not stand for injustice, which proved to be worthwhile because they got some equality. Online info :http://www.sitins.com/
• 4 students: Jibreel khazan, Franklin Eugene McCaln, Joseph Alfred McNEll, and David Linall Richmond
• I was fascinated when I was looking at this website and I found that President Barack Obama made reference to this sit in on January 29th, 2010. He stated that to this day this act has impacted us. He also said thanks to the 4 men who inspired him.
• All 4 were studying at A&T
• 1994 Khazan received an honorary doctorate from A&T for his role in the civil rights movement.
• 1993 McCain received the Nancy Susan Reynolds Award for leadership
• 2002-McNeil received the village of Hempstead’s Medal of Honor
• To Richmond A&T awarded him a posthumous honorary doctorate degree. He died in 1990 at 49 years of age.
image:http://americanhistory.si.edu/Brown/history/6-legacy/images/sit-in.jpg
What did the movements in the 1960’s challenge? How were they different from those in the 1950’s?
• They challenged the 50’sunderstanding of freedom linked to the cold war aboard and the consumer choice at home.
• They forced a reconsideration of the nation’s foreign policy and extended claims to freedom into the most intimate areas of life.
• They made American society confront the fact that certain groups felt excluded from American freedom.
Who is Ella Baker? What came out of her gathering? • Ella Baker was a longtime civil rights organizer.
• She called for a meeting of young activists in Raleigh North Carolina
• About 200 black students and a few whites attended.
• They formed the Student Non-violent coordinating committee (SNCC) which dedicated to replacing the culture of segregation with a “ beloved community” of racial justice and to empower blacks to take control of decisions affecting their lives
What did the congress of racial equality do? • CORE Launched the Freedom Rides.
• Integrated groups traveled by bus to deep south to test compliance with court banning segregation
Birmingham
Melissa Desuyo
In what ways was Birmingham, Alabama a violent city? What were its oppressed people fighting for?
There were numerous bombings on black homes and institutions in the city of Birmingham since World War II. Blacks protested over the inequality in education, employment, and housing. They demonstrated for greater opportunities in the economy and an end to segregation by local businesses, although they would produce no result.
To whom did Martin Luther King Jr.'s "Letter from Birmingham Jail" address? What was described in the letter?
King, begging for racial justice, responded to local clergymen who counseled patience. He relates the litany of abuses faced by black southerners by police brutality to the daily humiliation of having to explain to their children why they couldn't enter amusement parks or public swimming pools. Kind declared the "white moderate" must put aside fear of disorder and commit to racial justice. Online source:http://www.historynet.com/martin-luther-king-jrs-letter-from-birmingham-city-jail.htm
The source considers the letter to be a classic of world literature. It was a response to a group of local white clergymen who denounced King's nonviolent protest demanding an end to the demonstrations for esegregation of lunch counters, restrooms, and stores. The letter had to be smuggled out of the jail in parts by his attorneys.
MLK's Birmingham City Jail mugshot.
What did King decide to do concerning the streets of Birmingham in May 1963? What resulted in the happening?
King sent black schoolchildren out on the streets of Birmingham as a means of protest. A TV broadcast of this happening showed police forces assaulting the children with nightsticks, high-pressure fire hoses, and attack dogs. The brutality sent a wave of horror throughout the world, and Birmingham became a campaign in a triumph for the civil rights movement. Leading businessman feared the city was becoming a symbol of brutality and made an end to the demonstrations that desegregated public facilities, promising that black salespeople would be hired.
The March on Washington
Jordan Overshoun-Hall
What were the main goals of the March on Washington? The coalition of people called for the passage of a civil rights bill pending before Congress as well a public-works program to reduce the unemployment number, an increase in the minimum wage, and a law that would get rid of discrimination in the work world.
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 demonstrated the March’s demands. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 “created the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission to address race and sex discrimination in employment and a Community Relations Service to help local communities solve racial disputes; authorized federal intervention to ensure the desegregation of schools, parks, swimming pools, and other public facilities; and restricted the use of literacy tests as a requirement for voter registration.”
Voting Rights Act of 1965__ “abolished literacy tests and poll taxes designed to disenfranchise African American voters, and gave the federal government the authority to take over voter registration in counties with a pattern of persistent discrimination.”
What did the March on Washington demonstrate? It reflected and unprecedented degree of black-white cooperation in support of racial and economic injustice. The march also exhibited some of the movement’s limitations and tensions. Such as there being only male speakers at the Lincoln Memorial. Including Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. (I Have a Dream)
The Kennedy Years
Anika Adeni
What was represented by Kennedy’s short, three- year presidency? Kennedy’s term in office is viewed as a period of youthful glamour, soaring hopes, and dynamic domestic and international leadership.
What did Kennedy’s Inaugural Speech seem to urge Americans to do? Kennedy’s speech urged Americans to think beyond themselves, and do more for others and their country.
Kennedy considered what his main focus, and what key movement did he ignore? Kennedy’s main focus was the Cold War, while he ignored race/segregation politics and events, even though he had addressed it while campaigning.
Web Source: http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/john_kennedy_and_civil_rights.htm
It says that although Kennedy did nearly nothing while he was in office, after his death he had a big impact on the Civil Rights Movement. He put his brother into office as head of the Justice Department to help civil rights along. He also used federal power to try to stop segregation a little.
Image Source: http://whitehouser.com/wp-content/uploads/2008/02/jfk_mlk.jpg
JFK with MLK Jr.
Kennedy and the World
What is the Peace Corps? (Francesca Rebosura)
The Peace Corps was one of the Kennedy administrations first acts that had the purpose of sending young Americans abroad to aid in the economic and educational progress of developing countries, as well as to improve the image of the United States. As a result, over 15,000 young men and women were abroad serving as Peace Corps volunteers by 1966. http://www.commondreams.org/files/article_images/peacecorps0924.jpg What was Kennedy's new policy towards Latin America? (Francesca Rebosura)
Kennedy's new policy, the Alliance for Progress, was created in order to promote political and material freedom. It was a Marshall Plan for the Western Hemisphere that began with many cries about alleviating poverty and counteracting the appeal of communism. The plan eventually failed due to military regimes and local elites who controlled the Alliance for Progress aid because they enriched themselves, preventing the poor to truly find benefit from the program.
The Missile Crisis
What was "the most dangerous crisis" of the Kennedy administration and the Cold War and why? (Francesca Rebosura)
The most dangerous crisis was the discovery that the Soviet Union was installing missiles in Cuba capable of reaching the US with nuclear weapons in October of 1962. This was the most dangerous crisis because, as a result, the world could have been faced with an all-out nuclear war. For thirteen days, the world was faced with this dilemma, but it eventually ended in compromises in which the Soviet Union would withdraw the missiles, Kennedy and the US would pledge not to invade Cuba, and secretly, the US would remove the American Jupiter missiles from Turkey, which could reach the Soviet Union. What came about between the US and the Soviet Union in the summer of 1963? (Francesca Rebosura)
In the summer of 1963, both countries agreed to a treaty in which the testing of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere and in space was banned. Web Source:http://www.jfklibrary.org/Historical+Resources/JFK+in+History/Nuclear+Test+Ban+Treaty.htm
This treaty, was signed on August 5, 1963 and was the Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty. In addition to the atmosphere and space, it also bans the testing of nuclear weapons under water, but it does allow for underground nuclear tests as long as there is no radioactive debris that escapes the country conducting the test. Lastly, the treaty includes the working towards complete disarmament and the end of environmental harm by radioactive substances. This was ratified in the US on October 7, 1963. http://www.jfklibrary.org/NR/rdonlyres/48511AB3-7A2C-4E60-8585-7C76CA85EBE2/24372/KNC30095testban1.jpg
Kennedy and Civil Rights
Gaby Lee
Why was president kennedy reluctant to do anything about civil rights at first?
- at first kennedy thought that civil rights was the least of his worries, especially with the missile crisis.
- But in 1963 civil rights became top priority
- He shared the same belief as FBI director J. Edgar Hoover that the movement was inspired by communism, and even had the FBI spying on King, but he waited until 1962 to make this order
- He only used federal force when it was apparent that the law was being broken, but did not protect civil rights workers from violence, insisting that law enforcement was a local matter
-
- http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/john_kennedy_and_civil_rights.htm
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What made Kennedy change his mind?
- when children were being beaten, hosed and chased by dogs in Birmingham, Kennedy decided to change his mind
- this is when he realized that it would be contradictory for America to call itself the champion of freedom when it’s own citizens did not have full freedom
- when he went on national television to vouche for the passage of a law against discrimination in all public accomidations, he said, “We preach freedom around the world…, but are we to say to the world, and much more importantly, to each other, that this is a land of the free except for Negroes?”
Why did Kennedy not see his civil rights bill enacted?
- on November 22,1963- Kennedy was probably assassinated (while on a motorcade in Dallas, Texas) by Lee Harvey Oswald, a troubled former soldier who was killed two days later by a nightclub owner while in police custody
- his death is shrouded in mystery because Oswald was killed before he was proven guilty
external source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSBXW1-VGmM http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BsaadJ7G6Lc&feature=related
it seems that the assassin Oswald was only an attention starved man. he had lived a life of loneliness and alienation, his mother frequently reminded him and his siblings that they were a burden to him, and his father had died shortly after he was born. Later, he found his love of communism, although his brother says that he just wanted to be different. after joining the army and becoming an expert shooter, he defected and went to Moscow in order to become part of the Russian cause. at first they didnt want him, but he ended up staying, finding a wife and having a child. when he returned to america, he thought that there would be reporters there asking him questions of why he went to russia, and why he came back. he went back into solitude and into a life that was too normal for him. After ordering a gun, he shot president Kennedy at a parade in Dallas. through computer generation of the scene, it seems logical that the second shot came from a 6th story room in a building where they found much evidence supporting that Oswald was the murderer, including his fingerprints in the sniper's position and on the rifle, but people still have their doubts and believe that this was a conspiracy stirred up by organized crime.
(Nonie Grewal)
Q1: Before mid 1963, what was President Kennedy’s view and stand of the civil rights movement and black demands?
A1: Kennedy did not take a forceful stand and instead held the same view as the FBI director (J. Edgar Hoover), which was that the civil rights movement was inspired by communism and therefore should not necessarily be supported.
Q2: What did the president’s brother, Robert F. Kennedy do indicating that he held a similar view affiliating the civil rights movement with communism?
A2: Robert Kennedy (who was the Attorney General at the time) approved the FBI wiretaps on Martin Luther King Jr.’s phones.
Q3: What finally caused Kennedy to finally reconsider and enforce civil rights? Give examples of specific events.
- On May 2, 1963 over a 1,000 black students marched into Birmingham. Many were arrested, beaten, attacked by police dogs, and hosed down by the police. This event continued for several days. Meanwhile pictures, videos, and news was streaming across the nation describing and providing visuals of these events. At the same time business was declining due to the boycotts and publicity of the events, causing for white owners to seek a negotiation with Martin Luther King Jr. On May 10th King announced the removal of segregation signs in many public facilities, along with the release of protestors in jail on bond. This is known as ‘The Birmingham Truce Agreement.’
Q4: What did Kennedy realize and do after these events in regards to the civil rights movement and American freedom? Did he ever witness the effects of his decisions?
A4: He realized that it was virtually impossible for America to maintain its reputation as a champion of freedom if it had serious inequality issues within the nation. As a result he went on national television in efforts to call for a bill to be enacted banning discrimination in all public accommodation places. He rationalized his decision by asserting the fact that as a nation America preaches the idea of freedom around the world but lack freedom in its own land and amongst its own people.
Q5: Did President Kennedy ever witness the effects of his decisions?
A5: John F. Kennedy never got to witness the passing of his civil rights bill as he was assassinated on November 22, 1963 in Dallas Texas, where he was shot and killed. Although there are many conspiracy theories, it is believed that the assassin was Lee Harvey Oswald, a troubled former marine. This event struck hard in virtually all Americans of this generation. Much like Pearl Harbor and September 11, 2001, Kennedy’s death is remembered as being a great devastation. President Lyndon B. Johnson would follow him. Lyndon successfully continued the passage of the civil rights bill and furthered Kennedy’s ambitions by launching a domestic liberalism program.
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Table of Contents
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Since there are multiple people responsible for the same section, be sure not to duplicate what has already been done by someone in your group.Group 1
The Two Powers (p.889) through The Rise of Human Rights (p. 903).
Group 2
The Fair Deal (p.907) through Cold War Civil Rights (p. 917)
Group 3
What Kind of Nation (p. 920) through A Segregated Landscape (p. 936)
Group 4
Public Housing (p. 936) through The Emergence of the Third World (p. 947)
Group 5
The Cold War in the Third World (p. 947) through Eisenhower and Civil Rights (p. 961)
Group 6 (To ensure equity in selections there is some overlap with Group 5)
Massive Resistance (p. 959) through Kennedy and Civil Rights (p. 975)
The U.S. & the Cold War, 1945-1953
Origins of the Cold War
The Two Powers
How did the Soviet Union and the United States seek to use their post-war positions in the world? (William Tian)
Both nations saw a chance to promote their own ideologies with their newfound power and to advance their own economic interests. The Soviet Union saw a chance to ingrain communism into Eastern Europe, and use its standing among colonies and younger nations to gain international influence.
The United States also sought to use its postwar position in a similar fashion. It sought to spread its ideology of democracy and free markets throughout the world, and use the economic growth and vitality of the world to ensure American wealth. It also sought to contain Soviet influence, as the spread of Soviet influence would diminish America’s.
The Roots of Containment
Why were the USSR and the United states so opposed to each other? (William Tian)The philosophical foundations of the US and the USSR meant that they could not agree. They did not share common interests or history; only a common foe. Furthermore, as the Iran incident demonstrated, they had conflicting economic interests, which would eventually have put them against each other, no matter what. They also shared a different view of the world. The US wished to build a postwar world on the basis of free markets, while the Soviets wished to spread Communism and a command economy.
What was the Long Telegram? (Delani Dumpit)
It was written by American diplomat, George Kennan. In it he advised the Truman administration that the Soviets could not be dealt with as a normal government and that Communist ideology drove them to try to expand their power throughout the world. He also claimed that only the United States had the ability to stop them. His telegram laid the foundation for the policy of "containment" in which the United States committed itself to preventing any further expansion of Soviet power.
The Iron Curtain (Felicity Chen)
What was the “iron curtain” that Britain’s former wartime prime minister Winston Churchill declared had descended across Europe?
The Iron Curtain was an imaginary border line dividing the free west from the communist east. On either side of the Iron Curtain, states developed their own international economic and military alliances. Churchill's speach helped popularize the idea of the long-term struggle between the US and the Soviets.What type of division did the "curtain" represent? Which countries supported which sides?
The Iron Curtain was both a physical and an ideological division that represented the way Europe was viewed after World War II. To the east of the Iron Curtain were the countries that were connected to or influenced by the former Soviet Union. The other countries to the west of the Iron Curtain had democratic governments.
Web Source: http://www.wisegeek.com/what-was-the-iron-curtain.htm
The Truman Doctrine
Why did Truman decide to contain the Soviets instead of establishing good relationships? (William Tian)Truman saw the leadership of the USSR as untrustworthy, and did not want to establish solid relationships with them. Furthermore, he saw that spreading Soviet influence would harm American interests in strategic areas like the Middle East. In order to protect American interests, Truman started the policy of containing communism.
How did the policy of containment affect US foreign policy during the Cold War?
Truman’s policy promoted a spirit of bipartisanship in the US when it came to anticommunism. It also greatly expanded the US’s promotion of the free market social system. It also spurred the US to support any anticommunist regime, no matter how un-democratic, and also helped the creation of anti-Soviet military alliances.
In fact, George Lister, a faculty member at the University of Texas, argues that although the US did support right-wing dictatorships, it did so in order to promote democracy in the non-traditional sense, that is economic and social democracies that provided people with more opportunities than simply voting. This was the American justification for supporting dictators like Pinochet.
The Marshall Plan (Manisha Sahai)
What did Secretary of State George C. Marshall say was one pillar of containment?
- He pledged the United States to contribute billions of dollars to finance the economic recovery of Europe
What did the severe weather of the winter of 1946-1947 essentially do?- It strengthened the communist parties of France and Italy. American policymakers feared that these countries might fall into the Soviet orbit.
What was the Marshall Plan?- It offered a positive vision to go along with containment.
- It aimed to combat the idea, widespread since the Depression, that capitalism was in decline and communism was the wave of the future.
- It defined the threat to American security not so much as Soviet military power but as economic and political instability, which could be breeding grounds for communism.
- Its aim was "a higher standard of living for the entire nation; maximum employment for workers and farmers; greater production".
- Slogan: "Prosperity makes you free".
How did the Marshall Plan define freedom?- It meant more then simply anticommunism - it required the emergence of the "political and social conditions in which free institutions can exist".
- It was directed against "hunger, poverty, desperation, and chaos".
What can the Marshall Plan be compared to?- It can be considered a New Deal for Europe; an extension to that continent of Roosevelt's wartime Four Freedoms.
Can be Marshall Plan be considered successful? How so?The Reconstruction of Japan (Vince Leus)
1. What political changes were made during the reconstruction of Japan?Japan adopted a new, democratic constitution. The new Japanese constitution gave women the right to vote for the first time in Japan’s history.
2. What does Article 9 of Japan’s new constitution state?
Stated that Japan would renounce forever the policy of war and armed aggression, and would maintain only a modest self-defense force.
3. Why did The United States dissolve Japan’s giant industrial corporations?
The United States were initially going to dissolve Japan’s industrial corporations, but abandoned the idea in an effort to rebuild Japan’s industrial base as a bastion of anticommunist strength in Asia.
4. What happened to absentee landlordism and what was the outcome of the change?
Absentee landlordism was eliminated under the new constitution of Japan, it made most tenant farmers owners of their own land.
5. Factors of Japan's speedy economic recovery?
- American econonomic assistance
-Adoption of new technologies
- Low spending on the military
Web source: pbs.org states:
“Students of the occupation period are stunned by how readily the Japanese remade their country along an American model. Although this is often ascribed to the particular Japanese talent for adapting foreign concepts for their own use, many of the changes wrought during the occupation had roots in pre-war Japanese reform movements… and the Japanese Constitution itself, particularly Article 9 outlawing war and guarding against remilitarization.”
The Berlin Blockade and NATO (DANICA HOM)
What was the Berlin Blockade?It was when the Soviet Union blocked the road/ railroad traffic from American, British & French zones in Germany to Berlin, except for the east of Berlin, since that was under Soviet control.
What happened to Germany after Stalin lifted the blockade?
Germany became divided into 2 sides-- West and East Germany. They were each on a different side of the Cold War. Germany was finally reunified in 1991.
What prompted the creation of West Germany?
When the US, Britain and France created their own currency in the zones that they controlled in Germany, it resulted in the creation of a new West German government. This government took their side during the Cold War.
What was the NATO?
The NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) was created by the US, Canada and 10 European nations from the west. The purpose was to promise a defense against any attacks by the Soviet Union. West Germany soon became a critical part of this organization. Many victims of the Nazis saw West Germany as protection against the Soviet Union, through the NATO.
Web Source
http://www.funfront.net/hist/europe/coldwar.htm
This site focuses on Turkey's part in the NATO, and how Turkey gained protection against the Soviet Union by aligning itself with the west. The site also mentions how at first, there were no foreign troops stationed in Turkey to help fight the communists. Turkey, on its own, through laws and such, managed to shut down the communists and socialists parties in their country.
This picture is from http://www.indymedia.ie/attachments/aug2008/btccartoon.jpg
The Growing Communist Challenge (Marissa Phelan)
1. Who proved victorious in the Chinese civil war?In 1949, Mao Zedong led the communists to win the Chinese civil war causing a major setback in Truman's policy of containment.
2.Did the Truman administration recognize Mao Zedong's new government?
No, the Truman administration refused to recognize the new government and even blocked it from occupying China's seat at the United Nations. It was until the 1970s when the United States insisted that the ousted regime remained the legitimate government of China. The regime have been forced into exile on the island of Taiwan.
3. How did the National Security Council react to the new uprising of communists?
The National Security Council approved a call for a permanent military built-up to enable the United states to pursue a global crusade against communism.
4. What prompted the NSC to react this way?
This occurred in the wake of Soviet-American confrontations over southern and eastern Europe and Berlin, the communist victory in China, and Soviet success in developing of the atomic bomb.
4. What was NSC-68?
NSC-68 was created in 1950 and was a manifesto that described the Cold war as an epic struggle between "the idea of freedom" and the "idea of slavery under the grim oligarchy of the Kremlin". It was created by the National Security Council (NSC) and insisted that the "survival of the free world" was at stake. One of the most important policy statements of the early Cold War, NSC-68 helped to spur a dramatic increase in American military spending.
Web Source:
"Perhaps more than any other document of the period, NSC-68 can claim to be the bible of American national security policy and the fullest statement to that point of the new ideology that guided American leaders" (A Cross of Iron: Harry S. Truman and the Origins of the National Security State, 1945-1954 [Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998], p. 12). The document outlined the National Security Strategy of the United States for that time and analyzed the capabilities of the Soviet Union and of the United States of America from military, economic, political, and psychological standpoints...NSC-68 would shape government actions in the Cold War for the next 20 years and has subsequently been labeled the "blueprint" for the Cold War" (http://en.allexperts.com/e/n/ns
Picture of draft of NSC-68- notice "Top Secret"
The Korean War (DANICA HOM)
What was the difference between North & South Korea?South Korea was anticommunist and was allied with the US, except they were not a democratic government. Northern Korea was communist, allied with the Soviet Union and invaded South Korea in June of 1950, hoping to regain control.
What were the major events of the Korean War?
September 1950-- Americans launch counterattack behind North Korean lines, and North Korea retreated as the Americans advanced, occupying most of North Korea.
October 1950 -- UN is attacked by the Chinese near the Chinese border, and the UN is pushed back. MacArthur (US General) wanted to invade China and use nuclear weapons, but Truman refused, not wanting to have a war on the Asian mainland.
1953 -- A cease fire is agreed upon between North and South Korea, putting things back to the way they were before the war. There was never really a treaty that ended this war.
What was the thirty-eighth parallel? (Delani Dumpit)
This was the original boundary between the two Koreas. It was here that the war settled into a stalemate.
What did the Korean War show about the world?
Global harmony was no longer a high priority for the world. The world had been divided into two by the NATO. It also demonstrated that the US was the leading power in the West.
Web Source
http://www.history.navy.mil/photos/events/kowar/kowar.htm
This website summarizes the Korean War, focusing how the war took longer than most people expected, and how the US was at an advantage, from having recently experienced soldiers and leftover war vehicles from World War II.
Cold War Critics (Kathreece Farrales)
What kind of government did Stalin create in the Soviet Union?- Stalin created a brutal dictatorship that jailed or murdered millions of Soviet citizens. Its one-party rule, strict control of the arts and intellectual life by the state, and government-controlled economy demonstrated the total opposite of democracy and "free enterprise."
Who was Walter Lippmann and what did he think about Truman's policies?- Walter Lippmann was one of the nation's most prominent journalists. He was against the Truman policies, thinking that the US didn't have the equipment and the willingness of recruits to view every challenge to the status quo. He believed it was best for the US to not align itself against the movement for colonial independence in the name of anticommunism.
What was the Long Telegram?- The Long Telegram was sent by George Kennan, who inspired the policy of containment through his observations of the Soviet Union. He believed it was impossible to view international crises on a case-by-case basis, or to determine which genuinely involved either freedom or American interests.
Web Sourcehttp://www.articlemyriad.com/22.htm
"The telegram puts forth several important ideas about the intentions of the Soviet government and Kennan discusses at length the “Kremlin’s neurotic view of world affairs” (1946). Kennan suggests that eventually the Soviet powerhouse would collapse, especially if Western institutions and power networks were strengthened. In Kennan’s mind this was because the Soviet power structure was built on weak and unsustainable principles and it ruled based on fear and isolationism. At one point in the telegram, Kennan writes that it is the Soviet’s “instinctive fear of the outside world” (1946) that has allowed a dictatorship to thrive."
Imperialism and Decolonization (Kathreece Farrales)
How did World War II help the United States and others?- World War II helped increase awareness of the problems of imperialism and led many African-Americans to identify their own struggle for equality with the strivings of non-white colonial people overseas. It helped inspire many movements for self-govenrment.
What was the Free World?How did the Truman administration deal with decolonization both at home and abroad? (Delani Dumpit)
In 1946, the United States granted independence to the Philippines. But during the Cold War, the United States backed away from pressuring it's European allies to grant self-governement to colonies like French Indochina, the Dutch East Indies, and British colonies like the Gold Coast and Nigeria in Africa and Malaya in Asia.
Web Source (Delani Dumpit)
Information on Philippines Independence: http://countrystudies.us/philippines/22.htm
"Demoralized by the war and suffering rampant inflation and shortages of food and other goods, the Philippine people prepared for the transition to independence, which was scheduled for July 4, 1946. A number of issues remained unresolved, principally those concerned with trade and security arrangements between the islands and the United States. Yet in the months following Japan's surrender, collaboration became a virulent issue that split the country and poisoned political life. Most of the commonwealth legislature and leaders, such as Laurel, Claro Recto, and Roxas, had served in the Japanese-sponsored government."
<http://www.freewebs.com/philippineamericanwar/Independence%20Day%20July%204%201946.jpg>
The Cold War and the Idea of Freedom
The Cultural Cold War (Kimmie Aralar)
What was the "Militant Liberty"?Why was Cold War funding for the arts kept secret?
Who was Jackson Pollock?
http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2005/10/17/051017crat_atlarge
image from
http://www.original.rolandcollection.com/rolandcollection/section/34/482B.htm
Why did the CIA fund the Museum of Modern Art in New York?
Freedom and Totalitarianism
The Rise of Human Rights (Marianne Medrano)
Where did the idea of human rights originate?The idea that there are rights applicable to all humans originated during the eighteenth century in the Enlightenment and the American and French Revolutions.
What raised the issue of human rights in the world after the war?
In the postwar world, the atrocities committed during World War II, as well as the global language of the Four Freedoms and the Atlantic Charter forcefully raised this issue.
What is the importance of the trials at courts at Nuremberg?
Victorious Allies put many German officials on trial before special courts at Nuremberg for crimes against humanity. For the first time, individuals were held directly accountable to the international community for violations of human rights. The trials led to prison terms for many Nazi officials and the execution of ten.
The following crimes were stated as main counts of the indictment:
- Conspiracy
- Crimes against Peace
- War Crimes
- Crimes against Humanity
http://museums.nuremberg.de/courtroom600/topics/defendants.htmlWhat was the Universal Declaration of Human Rights?
The United Nations General Assembly approved the Declaration of Human Rights in 1948. It was drafted by a committee chaired by Eleanor Roosevelt and identified a broad range of rights to be enjoyed by people everywhere, including freedom of speech, religious toleration, and protection against arbitrary government, as well as social and economic entitlement like the right to an adequate standard of living and access to housing, education, and medical care.
http://www.racismnoway.com.au/upload/Humanrightsstimulus.JPG
Did the Universal Declaration of Human Rights have a way to be enforced?
It did not. In fact, some considered it an exercise in empty rhetoric, but the core principle—that a nation’s treatment of its own citizens should be subject to outside evaluation—slowly became a part of the language in which freedom was discussed.
Did some nations pick and choose criteria to follow instead of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights as a whole?
Yes, two examples are the Soviet Union and America. The Soviets claimed to provide all citizens with social and economic right, but violated democratic rights and civil liberties. Many Americans condemned the nonpolitical rights as a step towards socialism.
What did the Freedom House start in 1950?
In 1950, Freedom House began yearly assessments of the status of freedom in the world’s nations. It adopted purely political criteria emphasizing citizens’ rights to participate in open elections and to speak out on public issues. Considering access to employment, housing, education, medical care, and the like as part of the definition of freedom, he reports argued, would be a serious mistake.
How did Eleanor Roosevelt see this Declaration of Human Rights?
She saw the Universal Declaration of Human Rights as an integrated body of principles, a combination of traditional civil and political liberties with the social conditions of freedom outlined in her husband’s Economic Bill of Rights of 1944.
What did the UN do to the Economic Bill of Rights of 1944?
They divided it into two “covenants” – Civil and Political Rights…and Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights. It took until 1992 for Congress to ratify the first. It never approved the second.
The Truman Presidency
The Fair Deal (Rachel Caoili)
What was the outcome of demobilization at the end of World War II?
Demobilization occurred at a rapid pace as the armed force was reduced from 12 million to 3 million. Some soldiers found adjustment difficult while others took advantage of the GI Bill of Rights in order to obtain home mortgages, set up small businesses, or commence college education. The majority of returning soldiers entered the labor force. The government abolished wartime agencies that regulated industrial production and labor relations, and it dismantled wartime price controls, which lead to a rise in prices.
What was the focus of Truman’s Fair Deal?
Truman’s program focused on improving the social safety net and raising the standard living of ordinary Americans. Truman summoned Congress to increase the minimum wag, enact a program of national health insurance, and expand public housing, Social Security, and aid to education.
http://us.history.wisc.edu/hist102/photos/assets/photos/1107.jpg
The Postwar Strike Wave (Rachel Caoili)
What was Operation Dixie?Launched by the CIO and AFL the operation was a campaign to bring unionization to the South and shatter the hold of anti-labor conservatives on the region’s politics.
What happened during the strike wave?
With war production at its end, overtime work diminished following the removal of price controls and the drop in workers’ real income. In result 5 million workers including those in the steel, auto, coal, and other key industries—walked off their jobs, demanding wage increases.
How did Truman deal with the strikes?
President Truman feared the strikes would disrupt the economy. So, for instance, when railroad workers stopped worked and protested, the president prepared in which he threatened to draft them all and “hang a few traitors.” To resolve other strikes, Truman appointed federal “fact-finding boards,” which generally recommended wage increases, but not enough to restore workers’ purchasing power to wartime levels.
http://www.bitsofnews.com/images/graphics/garrett/pittsburghstrike2.jpg
The Republican Resurgence (Janelle Corpuz)
What effect did Truman's presidency have on the Republican Party?
During Truman's presidency, the Republican part had won both houses in Congress for the first time since the 1920's. Also, in 1946 the middle class voted Republican because of labor turmoil and many strikes were occurring because of business problems.
What was done under the Taft Hartley Act? Was it successful?
Under the Taft Hartley Act, the president was allowed to suspend strikes with an 80 day cooling period, they banned sympathy strikes, and secondary boycotts which were labor actions directed at those someone did business with. Closed shops were ouwlawed, which required workers to be Union workers in order to take in a job. States also passsed the "right to work" laws. Union officials were also forced to say they weren't communists. This Act was successful because it made it more difficult for unorganized workers to get into Unions. Also, it cause dthe drvline of organized labor's share of nations workforce.
(Website)
http://platypus1917.org/2009/12/06/between-old-left-and-new-a-postwar-balance-sheet/
This website shows the people who didn't approve of the Taft-Hartley Act. It was called the Slave-labor bill by the AFL and CIO.
Postwar Civil Rights (Janelle Corpuz)
In what ways did the treatment of African Americans change during Truman's presidency?
During Truman's presidency, laws were passed in eleven states to stop discrimination when it came to employment and public places. Also, segregated schools were slowly declining. By the year 1952, 20% of African Americans in american were registered to vote. Also, the biggest change is that lynching finally ceased and it became known as a crime.
What happened to African Americans in terms of sports?
The Brooklyn Dodgers added Jackie Robinson to their team, which meant that they were going against the exclusion of black players playing with white players. Robinson had to promise that he wouldn't respond to the racist remarks made while he played. He even won Rookie of the Year.
(Website)
http://fredyt3.files.wordpress.com/2009/04/jackie-robinson-legends-composite-photofile-posters.jpg
To Secure These Rights (Jessica Gabasan)
What was the purpose of Truman’s To Secure These Rights?The federal government was given the responsibility of abolishing segregation as well as ensuring equal treatment in housing, employment, education, and the criminal justice system. However, Truman also issued this with the Cold War in mind, thinking that if the US were to offer a choice of “freedom or enslavement” to the world, they must first correct their own flawed practices of democracy.
What were the impacts of Truman’s civil rights program?
Although Congress rejected To Secure These Rights, Truman issued an executive order desegregating the armed forces. As a result, the armed services became the first large institution to remove any unfair, racial practices. The Korean War would be the first American conflict fought by an integrated army since the Revolutionary War.3
The Dixiecrat and Wallace Revolts (Jessica Gabasan)
What was the States’ Rights Democratic Party and what was their beliefs?
The party was formed by southern delegates, called Dixiecrats. They nominated for their president Governor Strom Thurmond of South Carolina. His platform called for the “complete segregation of the races,” although denied charges of racism. He declared that freedom stood for “individual liberty and freedom, the right of people to govern themselves.” He believed Truman’s plans of extending federal power to enforce Southern civil rights resembled Hitler’s dictatorship.
(Web Source) At the 1948 Democratic National Convention, 35 Southern Democrats walked out in protest of the controversial new civil rights planks of racial integration as well as the reversal of Jim Crow laws. Their campaign slogan was “Segregation Forever!” They also believed in “state’s rights”—meaning freedom from governmental interference. Their presidential candidate was Strom Thurmond while the vice president was Field J. Wright. - http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h1751.html
Dixiecrat campaign buttons/posters
Who was Wallace and how did he challenge Truman?
The Progressive Party, left-wing critics of Truman’s foreign policy, nominated Henry A. Wallace for president. He aproposed an expasion of social welfare programs at home and strongly denounced racial segregation more than Truman. His focus on the Cold War concerned the international control of nuclear weapons and a renewed relationship with the Soviet Union based on economic cooperation rather than military confrontation. Supporters of his campaign consisted of socialists and communists.
The 1948 Campaign
Jennifer RillamasWhat two things did Truman do to revive New Deal rhetoric?
_ &
(choose two)
a) denounce Wall Street
b) get rid of all radios in american households
c) convert to communism
d) accused his opponent with threatening to undermine Social Security
What was a big flaw of Republican candidate Thomas A. Dewey?
a) he said that a vote for Wallace was a vote for Stalin
b) he tried to draw away the south's support for Truman
c) he was so sure that he was going to win that he became unwilling to commit himself on huge issues during the time period
d) he criticized Congress as "do-nothings"
Picture Source: http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/cartoons/political_cartoons/little_white_lies.jpg
Web Source: http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/1948campaign/large/docs/documents/index.php?documentdate=1948-06-24&documentid=14-1&studycollectionid=&pagenumber=1
This is the acceptance speech of Thomas A. Dewey as the Republican party candidate for the 1948 election. His speech clearly exemplifies the answer to the multiple choice question above. Being fully cocky and so sure of a victory that in his acceptance speech he makes great generalizations of issues and happenings in the US without direct statements of them only calling them things such as "grave challenges of our time" that have "marked our steadfast".
What was demonstrated through presidential candidate Strom Thurmond's ability to only carry four Deep South states in the 1948 election?
-Thurmond's ability to only carry four Deep South states in the 1948 election demonstrated that the race issue, in terms of individual freedom, had the potential to lead traditional Democratic white voters to abandon their party.
The Anti-Communist Crusade (Viktor Huerta) -Why was the end of the Cold War similar to the end of World War I? There would be no return to "normalcy" afterwards -What was revealed in the 1950s and 1960s? The Soviet and American governments conducted experiments in which soldiers were exposed to chemical, biological, and nuclear weapons; American nuclear tests exposed thousands of civilians to radiation causing cancer and birth defects http://www.usnews.com/usnews/news/articles/940124/archive_012286.htm The article lightly goes into detail about the types of experiments done during the Cold War. It also mentioned that when the Cold War ended, the declassification of millions of pages of documents on radiation experiments were ordered, and compensation for the test subjects were considered. But it also states that the government said they took no responsibility for the injuries of the test subjects. Image: http://www.europarl.europa.eu/eplive/expert/photo/20060920PHT10822/pict_20060920PHT10822.jpg
-What were some effects of the Cold War? It helped to fuel economic growth and support scientific research that perfected weaponry and led to improved aircraft, computers, medicines, and other products that largely impacted civilian life; promoted rapid expansion of American higher education; reshaped immigration policy by allowing refugees from communism to enter the US regardless of national-origin quotas; American racial policies that caused international embarrassment led to the dismantling of segregation; encouraged drawing a sharp line between patriotic Americans and those accused of disloyalty
Loyalty & Disloyalty (Jasmeet Kaur)
What was the loyalty program (loyalty review system)? The loyalty review system was established by President Truman. It was a system in which government employees were required to demonstrate their patriotism without being allowed to confront accusers or, in some cases, knowing the charges against them. The loyalty program failed to uncover any cases of espionage.
Who did the HUAC charge as communist sympathizers/people that were helping communists?
The committee charged the Hollywood Ten, who included the prominent screenwriters Ring Lardner Jr. and Dalton Trumbo, with contempt of Congress, and they served jail terms of six months to a year. Hollywood studios blacklisted them, along with 200 others who were accused of communist sympathies or who refused to name names.The Spy Trials (Jasmeet Kaur) What were the spy trials?
A series of highly publicized legal cases that followed the HUAC charges against the Hollywood Ten and others. What was the most sensational spy trial? The trial of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg, a working-class Jewish communist couple from New York City. in 1951, a jury convicted the Rosenbergs of conspiracy to pass secrets concerning the atomic bomb to Soviet agents during World War II (when the Soviets were American allies). What was the importance of the Rosenberg trial? (web source): The case aroused much controversy. Many claimed that the political climate made a fair trial impossible and that the only seriously incriminating evidence had come from a confessed spy; others questioned the value of the information transmitted to the Soviet Union and argued that the death penalty was too severe. Communists in the United States and abroad organized a campaign to save the Rosenbergs and received the support of many liberals and religious leaders. http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/history/A0842422.html
McCarthy & McCarthyismJennifer Rillamas
What did Joseph R. McCarthy do in February 1950?
- In February 1950, McCarthy announced during his speech at Wheeling, West Virginia that he had a list of 205 communists working for the State Department.
What was brought out about McCarthy at the Army-McCarthy trials?
(check all that apply)
a) he himself was really a communist
b) that truly half of the government turned out to be involved with some sort of communist group
c) he in reality had no facts or evidence as a basis for his accusations
d) he was a total fake who beat up people so they would be his witness
According to Give Me Liberity! Which one of the following statements is a false association with the term "McCarthyism"?
a) character assassination
b) pursuing what is unjust for the sake of correction
c) guilt by association
d) abuse of power in the name of anti communism
An Atmosphere of Fear
[Jacqui Liu]
<< HUAC hearing; anti-communist investigations
In what ways was anticommunism as much a local as a national phenomenon?
States created their own committees modeled on HUAC that investigated suspected communists and other dissenters. States and localities required loyalty oaths of teachers, pharmacists, and members of other professions, and the banned communists from fishing, hold a driver’s license, and, in Indiana, working as a professional wrestler.
What were some of the private organizations that also persecuted individuals for their beliefs?
Private organizations included the American Legion, National Association of Manufacturers, and Daughters of the American Revolution. The Better American League of southern California gathered the names of nearly 2 million allege subversives in the region.
What happened to those who failed to testify about their past and present political beliefs?
Throughout the country in the late 1940s and 1950s, those who failed to do so frequently lost their jobs, and also failed to inform on possible communists.
What affect did the “atmosphere of fear” have on public libraries and universities?
Local anticommunist groups forced public libraries to remove from their shelves “un-American” books like the tales of Robin Hood, who took form the rich to give to the poor. Universities refused to allow left-wing speakers to appear on campus and fired teachers who refused to sign loyalty oaths or to testify against others.
How did the courts respond to the political repression occurring? What happened in Dennis v. United States? What does this reveal about the situation?
The courts did nothing to halt the repression, demonstrating James Madison’s warning that popular hysteria could override “parchment barriers” like the Bill of Rights that sought to prevent infringements on freedom. In 1951, in Dennis v. United States the Supreme Court upheld the jailing of Communist Party leaders even though the charges concerned their beliefs, not any actions they had taken.
>More on the court case: http://www.oyez.org/cases/1950-1959/1950/1950_336
The source explains that the leaders of the Communist Party of America were arrested and charged with “violating provisions of the Smith Act.” The Smith Act made it unlawful to conspire to teach and advocate the overthrow or destruction of the US government.
The Uses of Anti-Communism (Chris Mullen)
What was the Soviet presence in the US?There undoubtedly were Soviet spies in the United States. Yet the tiny Communist Party hardly posed a threat to American security. And the vast majority of those jailed or deprived of their livelihoods during the McCarthy era were guilty of nothing more than holding unpopular beliefs and engaging in lawful political activities.
How was anticommunism prevalent in the US?
A popular mass movement, it grew especially strong among ethnic groups like Polish-Americans, with roots in eastern European countries now dominated by the Soviet Union and among American Catholics in general, who resented and feared communists' hostility to religion.
How did the FBI use anticommunism to expand their power?
Under director J. Edgar Hoover, the FBI developed files on thousands of American citizens, including political dissenters, homosexuals, and others, most of whom had no connection to communism.
Anti-Communist Politics
Cold War and Organized Labor
Cold War Civil Rights
What was the importance of the NAACP and the Urban League during this time period? (Ronny Zelaya)
Both of these groups went through a transformation. For example, both of these groups protested Truman’s loyalty program and questioned how congressional committees defined communism as “un-American” but not racism. But both of these groups went along with McCarthyism because they thought they had no choice. The NAACP purged communists within its branch and changed the civil rights groups tactics and way of thinking.What was the Southern Conference for Human Welfare? (Ronny Zelaya)
The Southern conference of human welfare was an organization that communists and anticommunists had cooperated in linking racial equality with labor organizing and economic reform. They had been crucial to the struggles of the 1930s and war years, but they fell apart during this time period and NAACP could not fill this loss
What was Truman’s view on the Civil Rights movement during the Cold War?
Despite growing up in the South, President Harry Truman did support and called for greater attention on civil rights. His administration ended segregation in the federal government in 1950s, established a civil rights committee, and the Supreme Court overturned Plessy v Ferguson ( Jim Crow Laws). President Truman wanted to improve the American Image abroad by doing more for civil rights, but the Cold War proved too much and discussing civil rights during this time period because no one wanted to discuss about the imperfection of American Society.
Harry Truman Civil Rights
This website mentions the Plessy v Fergusen and the end of segregation of federal jobs mentioned above. It also discusses how Harry Truman grew up in the South and was racist, but when he entered public office, he changed that opinion because he believed that America cannot be considered democratic with equality.
So what was the point of this section? (Ronny Zelaya)
This would reveal the waning moments of the civil rights movement that impacted American History and caused an economic boom. The term “affluent society” transformed American life and open opportunities for white Americans in the suburbs but left blacks in the rural areas of the south. This contrast inspired a civil rights revolution and redefined American freedom.
An Affluent Society, 1953-1960
The Golden Age
How did the 195O's-196O's became known as the Golden Age? (Lizel Mendoza)- The American gross national product more than doubled.
- Middle-class benefited from this and received higher wages --> mass consumption in all classes.
- electricity, central heating and cooling, and indoor plumbing
- Numerous innovations were created, shaping the economy and an average American's life.
- TV, air-conditioner, automatic dishwashers, air travel, affordable long-distance phone-calls, etc.----
This outside source suggests that advertising and the image of utopia, through affluence, blinded citizens from the current events that could possibly destroy the new look on America and freedom. Even though watching TV became the number one leisure activity, books and other sources of literature also greatly help enhanced the benefits of instant-gratification. The boundaries between reality and fantasy suddenly disappeared.http://kclibrary.lonestar.edu/decade50.html
What happened to Americans during the Golden Age? (Lizel Menoza)
A Changing Economy
What drastic changes took place in the economy of the 1950's? (Martin Palanca)During the 1950's, American economy shifted from being industrially focused, to publicly focused. America now did more for the people such as implementing services, improving education and information, finance, and made great improvements in entertainment. Farming also had great changes, despite the decline in farm population, production rose by 50 percent due to improved methods of farming. With these changes in farming, the west was now open to more agricultural services and opportunities.
What were the changes to agriculture in the United States during the 1950s? (Anmol Shah)
During the 1950s, the farm population fell from 23 million to 15 million, yet agricultural production rose by 50 percent, thanks to more efficient machinery, the application of chemical fertilizers and insecticides, increased use of irrigation, and the development of new crop strains. The center of gravity of American farming shifted to Texas, Arizona, and especially California. In California, the large corporate farms were worked by Latino and Filipino migrant laborers.
How did the Cold War affect the nation’s industries and economy? (Trish Denoga)
Major industries like steel, automobiles, and aircraft dominated the domestic and world markets. The Cold War fueled industrial production and promoted a redistribution of the nation’s population and economic resources.
Online Source: An overview of economy in the 1950s
http://ezinearticles.com/?Economic-Status-of-the-United-States-in-1950&id=1565016
What was the 1950s seen as, in retrospect?
In retrospect, the 1950s were seen as the last decade of the industrial age in the United States. American economy has shifted rapidly toward services, education, information, finance, and entertainment – while employment in manufacturing has declined.
What happened to the farm industry in the 1950s?
Farm industry declined in the 1950s, but agricultural production rose by 50%, all in thanks to more efficient machinery, the application of chemical fertilizers and insecticides, and increased use of irrigation to open land to cultivation in the West.
What happened in 1958 between United States and the Soviet Union? What was its significance for each country? (Bahareh Mehrizi)
In 1958, the United States and Soviet Union agreed to exchange national exhibitions in order to allow citizens of each “superpower” to become acquainted with life in another. There was a Soviet Union Exhibition in New York that included weapons, machinery, and other communist supplies. An American National Exhibition opened in Moscow. Instead of illustrations of communism throughout its country, United States proved their superiority of capitalism from consumer goods and leisure equipment.
The significance of these exhibitions was a huge controversy towards the meaning of freedom. Many believed that the exhibitions were not meant for the countries to know each other better, but to show superiority amongst one another.
Define the “kitchen debate” and what happened. (Bahareh Mehrizi)
The Soviet Union had a “kitchen debate” between Nixon and Soviet premier, Nikitia Khrushchev. They engaged in debates about capitalism and communism. Their debates took place in a kitchen-furniture like surrounding at a ranch house. Nixon’s views included the American freedom and women’s role in society along with the choice among products, colors, styles, and prices. He saw women more like housewives and regarded them in a traditional perspective. Khrushchev regarded America’s consumer culture in a humorous manner regarded their obsession toward material possessions.
What was the importance of holding the "kitchen debate" in a kitchen? (Marilen Atienza)
The kitchen represented the mass enjoyment of American freedom within a suburban setting, according to Nixon. It was meant to display American freedom of choice among products, colors, styles, and prices. It also was meant to symbolize the role of women being the kitchen. By holding it in a kitchen, Nixon recognized that the power of American goods and popular culture across the globe was more influencing than military might.
A Suburban Nation
What contributed to the "suburban nation" of America in the 1950's? (Martin Palanca)One major aspect of the suburban nation was the baby boom and the shift of the population from cities to suburbs which inadvertently created a large demand for housing, tv's, appliances, and cars. Also, the dream of home owning, and the belief of a better life in these suburbs became predominant in the lives of Americans. Such can be exemplified in Levittown founded by William and Alfred Levitt. This "Levittown" drew 40,000 people to it, one of the most popular suburban developments of the time. With this new suburban way of living, people would need a new way of acquiring furniture and other leisures for their homes which created THE MALL which people went to with the use of their CARS.
Say hello to the 1950 Mercury:http://www.seriouswheels.com/pics-1950-1959/1950-Mercury-2dr-maroon-scallops-ggr.jpg
What is the meaning of a suburban nation and how did affect the American lifestyle? (Anmol Shah)
America became a suburban nation because of the amount of money spent on residential construction and consumer goods. The baby boom and the shift of population from cities to suburbs created the new suburban nation. An immense demand for housing, television sets, home appliances, and cars emerged out of the 1950s. These changes affected the American lifestyle in many ways. For instance, the number of houses in the United States doubled during the decade, nearly all of them built in the suburbs that sprang up across the landscape.
Urban to Suburbs Website
This website, which includes a free downloadable PDF, describes the changes from an urban to a suburb lifestyle. For example, it explains how the suburban lifestyle is usually not as fast paced as the urban lifestyle. Suburbs have space to build infrastructure, while urban cities usually must build upwards because of the lack of free space. Also, the price of land in urban areas usually are higher; however, this is not always the case. Lastly, it describes how suburbs are often slow and peaceful, while urban areas have many factories and industrial opportunities.
What were the “main engines” of economic growth? (Trish Denoga)
The main engines were residential construction and spending on consumer goods. This was in part because of the idea of "home owning" as a way of providing for one's own family at the time.
Who were William and Alfred Levitt?
They were the most famous home developers at the time who created Levittown.
This family is a prime example of the boom of the realty industry as they were one of the first of many families to purchase a home in Levittown.
What was Levittown? (Marilen Atienza)
Levittown was a town built by William and Alfred Levitt shortly after World War II. It was built on 1,200 acres of potato fields on Long Island near New York City. More than 10,000 houses were assembled quickly from prefabricated parts and priced well within the reach of most Americans. Soon around 40.000 people lived there. Because of their success William and Alfred Levitt became the most famous suburban developers.
The Growth of the West
What were the characterisitcs of the growth of the west during the 1950's-1960's? (Martin Palanca)Major population movement from the east to the west would contribute to the characteristics of the growth of the west during the 1950's-1960's. (1/5th of the population growth of the 1950's occured in California and in 1963 became the most populous city of the nation) Cities like L.A., SF, and Houston were filled with homes and business segregated by intricate highway systems. Also, the car was the major contribution to the growth of the west. Many people used cars to go to and from work. And with the spread of suburban homes, many lawns were created (grass was and still is the most cultivated crop).
What attracted people to move to the West in the 195O's? (Lizel Mendoza)
Unlike urbanized cities in the East of the Pacific Ocean, Western cities like Houston, Phoenix, and LA were "centerless" and became more convenient for a typical car driver. Instead of having downtown "hotspots" incorporated with neighborhoods, houses and businesses were scattered in the West, only to be united by highways. With the expansion of highways and roads, the usage of a an automobile became the number one choice of transportation. Another difference between western societies and eastern societies is that shopping districts resided in suburban places rather than in downtown areas making it easier to buy what one desires.
What cities were affected by the growth in the West and how did life go about in those regions? (Anmol Shah)
Houston, Phoenix and Los Angeles, California were two of the cities affected by the growth in the west. However, these cities were considered "centerless" because they were decentralized clusters of single-family homes and businesses united by a web of highways. The Los Angeles basin once had an extensive system of trains, trolleys, and buses, but they were soon replaced by freeways for cars and trucks. Life centered much around the car in the western metropolitan cities. People drove to and from work and did their shopping at malls reachable only by driving.
A Consumer Culture
What created the consumer culture and why is the consumer so important? (Martin Palanca)The consumer is the key part of our economy because "our ability to consume is endless". The cause for the consumer culture would be mostly on the consumer, which is why he/she is so important. It is the idea that the consumer buys commercial commodities and keeps money circulating. Also, with the addition of the credit card and low interest rates, the economy encouraged the consumer to borrow more money to purchase more goods. This debt, once seen as a loss, became a comfortable living condition by all americans.
http://kclibrary.lonestar.edu/decade50.html
Also, as this website suggests, technology played a huge role in the "Consumer Culture of the 1950-1960's)". With the television coming out, people were buying tv sets to see audio visuals rather than just audio from the radio. The first jetliner began by National Airlines was started with flights from New York to Miami and the Federal Highway Act of 1956 allowed easy transportation from place to place which allowed more goods to be transported much quicker and allowed for consumers to venture to stores in an easier manner.
What did this consumer culture exemplify? (Derek Guterres)
Consumerism basically exemplified the superiority of the American way of life when compared to communism. Even though communism is where everyone receives the same thing, the capitalist and consumerist American society enables everyday citizen to purchase consumer goods that can be thought as luxury rich goods around the world. Communists cannot afford to give everyone luxury rich items such as cars, however the consumerist citizens in America are able to purchase these items, showing America's dominance. American consumer goods was once a status symbol for the rich in other countries, but in America, most people own these goods and are even able to market it to customers around the globe. America's consumerist society enabled ordinary citizens to enjoy luxuries of rich classes in other countries.
How did consumerism change Americans' definition of freedom? (Marilen Atienza)
The measure of American freedom became the ability to gratify market desires. According to Clark Kerr, president of the University of California, although workers are subjected to less freedom "in the workplace", it offered a far greater range of "goods and services," and therefore "a greater scope of freedom" in Americans' "personal lives." American freedom had revolved more around consumerism and the ability to buy.
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/tupperware/peopleevents/e_consumer.html
After World War II, wartime production had helped pull America's economy out of depression, and from the late 1940s on, young adults saw a rise in their spending power. There were many jobs, higher wages, and because of the lack of consumer goods during the war, Americans were eager to spend their money. American consumers were actually praised as patriotic citizens that contributed to the ultimate success of the American way of life. Americans invested in items based around home and family life like televisions, cars, washing machines, refrigerators, toasters, and vacuum cleaners. These gadgets would help them modernize their lives.
The TV World
What influence did the television have in society? (Bahareh Mehrizi)Images of middle-class life and advertisements for consumer goods flourished throughout the country. Nearly nine out of ten American families owned a TV set by the end of the 1950’s. The television became a common source for information that replaced newspapers and radios. It became the nation’s leading leisure activity, changing the daily lives of Americans. The “TV Dinner” became popular as families watched popular shows including The Honeymooners and The Goldbergs. Many large corporations sponsored and advertised for programs to convey a god life based on consumption.
This website illustrates how the television became a popular activity and its power over the daily lives of Americans. It describes the networks- NBC, CBS, and ABC, who were the only networks shown in the 1950s'-1960's. The political use of television is also portrayed in this website as many tried to have their voices heard - whether Republican or Democrat - at conventions. News was very popular as television slowly replaced the radio. It also displays the business profits made from television as the amount of advertisers went from $58 million to $1.5 billion.
http://www.livinghistoryfarm.org/farminginthe50s/life_17.html
In addition to products like the television, how did the Golden Age bring about economic changes and how was it easily available to all kinds of customers? (Bahareh Mehrizi)
The Golden Age was followed at the end of WWII when capitalism, economic expansion, stable prices, low unemployment and rising standards of living became present until 1973. Between 1946 and 1960, the American gross national product doubled which benefited the ordinary citizens. In addition, innovations such as television, air conditioning, automatic dishwashers, long distance phone calls, and jet air travel became available to common people with reasonable prices.
How did television promote peace in the 195O's and what are its benefits? (Lizel Mendoza)
By displaying shows that portrayed the idea of a healthy and happy society, the world of television distracted American audiences from controversial ideas. Illustrating TV shows suitable for people of all ages, the importance of family togethernes and freedom started to become a tight correlation. Advertisers helped promoted peace by promoting their own products. Everything shown through the notable box-shaped screen with antennas on the top meant that one must have it in order to experience the true essence of freedom. As the demand for materials went up, the economy grew as well.
Sources: Give Me Liberty, Second Edition, Eric Foner
A New Ford
How did the automobile shape American suburban life? (Yoni Carnice)With the help of the interstate highway system, regular Americans were able to travel long distances for vacation and commute to distant locations for work. As a result, motels, drive-in movie theaters, and fast food establishments began to emerge in American society. The car became of a symbol of freedom for the regular American, and the "open road" made many feel as if they were modern versions of western pioneers.
http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/world/A0861340.html
The mass production spurred the growth of suburbia because automobiles allowed Americans to commute much farther than before. The end of a lot of public transportation also led many Americans to purchase a vehicle for their family. The car opened up more opportunities because there were less traveling restrictions. In response, state and local governments started road-building projects.
http://west.stanford.edu/cgi-bin/pager.php?id=89
What is a new Ford and what does it reveal about American society during this time? (Derek Guterres)
A new ford was a Chrysler or Chevrolet and it seemed essential in order to enjoy the benefits of freedom. It shows how the American society was becoming more materialistic and were able to afford more things. A car, home and television set, became what sociologists called "the standard consumer package" of the 1950s. The new car basically shows how people can actually afford these things and it became part of typical family life. By the 1960s, 80 percent of American families owned at least one car and 14 percent of them had two or more. Most of the cars were manufactured in the US, and most of the families owned one showing how it became a standard of living. These cars reflected American lifestyles during this time because it reflected how most American's lived and how it was essential in their lives.
What kind of manufacturers were most successful during this time and what did they do? Name a few companies. (Derek Guterres)
Auto manufacturers and oil companies rapidly increased to the high ranks of corporate America. Detroit was a home to immense auto factories. The River Rouge complex contained 62,000 employees and Williow Run contained 42,000. In the long run, because much of federal money was given to the Sunbelt (which was mainly focused in the south and southwest) and taken away from the North and Midwest, the old industrial heartland had suffered. However, because of the boom in the automobile industry, with the demand for steel, rubber and other products, the region's prosperity was saved and it continued to prosper. The booming automible industry and oil companies generated much money and provided products needed in the American society.
How did cars change Americans' daily lives? (Marilen Atienza)
The automobile changed Americans' traveling habits. It was now possible for them to vacation long-distance by car and commute to work. This lead to an alteration of American landscape. Motels, drive-in movie theaters, and roadside eating establishments were invented to accompany the driving fad. The car symbolized the identification of freedom with individual mobility and private choice. Advertisements were constantly reminding Americans the freedom of the "open road".
Women at Work and at Home
What was the typical suburban family like, and what were the expected roles of women in this type of family? (Yoni Carnice)The male earned all or most of the income for the family. Even though the numbers of wage-earning women increased, many wives took care of household duties. Films, television, and advertisements emphasized the importance of marriage for the American women. Married couples were now younger, divorced less frequently, and had more children. This resulted in the "baby boom" that increased the American population by nearly 30 million during the 1950s. The typical family highlighted the differences in American and Communist society, where a large amount of women worked. The new family was less patriarchal, and focused on personal fulfillment through shared consumption, leisure activities, and sexual pleasure.
How were women affected after WWII? (Derek Guterres)
Women lost most of their industrial jobs after WWII. Women were expected to raise the family and carry out the American way of life. After WWII, women that worked outside of the home, worked for low-salary, nonunion jobs like clerical, sales and service labor. Most women did not have well paying jobs or manufacturing positions. There was a large drop in female employment after WWII, and because of the drop more women came out and the number of women at work increased. By 1955, the women working actually surpassed those that were working during WWII. However, the goals of women's work changed. The modern woman was believed to work only a part time job in order to support the family, but they were expected not to pull a family out of poverty or pursue self goals or a career. The wages of working women in 1960 were only 60 percent of that earned by men.
http://history.sandiego.edu/gen/st/~cg3/pagefour.html
This website talks about how women were affected by the coming back of men from WWII, and how they lost their jobs to men. This website has a sympathetic view towards these women because they were about to lose their jobs.There was basically no feminine response to this firing of women. The website states that some women were happy to leave and left for various reasons such as fulfilling pre-war actions such as marriage or pregnancy, going back home because they belonged there, or because the American society viewed women as those who belong in the home. However some women continued to work and received pay cuts and even denominations. According to this website, 75 percent of the women stated that they would continue to work. Despite the inequalities that the women faced from price cuts and lay offs, these actions gave way to the Civil Right movements int the 1950s. Below is a picture of a women after WWII that was laid off.
What happened to feminism?(Derek Guterres)
Feminism seems to have disappeared from American life. However if it was seen, it could be considered as evidence of some sort of mental disorder. Well-known psychologists stated that the unhappiness of individual women or the desire to work for wages rooted from the inability to accept the maternal instict. It seems that American society had started to drift back towards the idea of a woman's only place is in the home. The idea of domestic life as a refuge and a full-time motherhood as a women's job has been present throughout much of American history, but in post war-suburbs, people were close to realizing this.
A Segregated Landscape
How was segregation present in 1950s suburbia? (Yoni Carnice)Even though suburbia gave off the image of freedom, racial segregation was still present. As late as the 1990s, nearly 90 percent of suburban whites lived in segregated communities with non-white populations below 1 percent. Much of this was due to decisions by government, real-estate developers, banks, and residents. Federal agencies after the war continued to insure mortgages that barred resale of houses to non-whites, which financed housing segregation. Even though the Supreme Court declared these provisions legally unenforceable, banks and private developers did not allow non-whites from the suburbs and the government refused to subsidize their mortgages except in segregated enclaves. William Levitt's communities did not allow blacks to rent or purchase homes. He eventually allowed non-whites after a lawsuit, but this took a while.
How did the home in the suburbs become, "the center of freedom?" (Lizel Mendoza)
Moving into the suburbs promoted Americanization, which cut residents off from ethnic communities and bringing them fully into the world of mass consumption.
Public Housing & Urban Renewal
(David Hau)Why did the Housing Act of 1949 fail to truly provide a “decent home for every American family?”
The Housing Act was established with a low ceiling on the income of residents, since the commercial housing industry wanted to keep government out of the competition for the middle class market. White middle-class neighborhoods had no desire to have public housing constructed near their residencies and, as a result, the 800,000 houses allotted under this program mostly went towards segregated neighborhoods. This had the unintended effect of keeping poverty isolated in these communities and reinforcing the practice of segregation.
How was the process of racial exclusion a self-reinforcing one?
The lives of underprivileged blacks, Latinos, and other immigrant groups were often subject to violent change. With the introduction of “urban renewal,” wherein the government supported destruction of urban neighborhoods in order to construct housing for the white middle and upper classes, members of races that had previously resided in these areas were increasingly driven out. With nowhere to go and few job opportunities, new slums were continuously formed. White members of the middle class often sought to bar other races from entering their suburban neighborhoods, as they believed that house prices would drop with the introduction of slum-like elements. With the living conditions of these races staying relatively low, poverty and destitution became an inescapable element of life.
The Divided Society
(Dhruv Jhigan)How did any non-white presence in suburban neighborhoods lower the quality of life?
-Suburbanization caused a huge conflict in regards to the presence of blacks and whites in the same neighborhood. During 1950 to 1970, about 7 million whites left the urban cities for the suburbs, which is an outlying district of a city. Then, nearly 3 million blacks took this opportunity to head to the North. This increased the size of urban ghettos. Racial discrimination was still alive and active and many blacks still could not afford good houses due to lack of education or employment. This left the poor blacks trapped in ghettos, which was seen by society as places of crime, poverty, and welfare. Suburban homes were the emblem of freedom for the family’s investments and any presence of blacks seemed to lower the quality of life and destroy property values. It was said in Life magazine by a white suburbanite to a black neighbor, “he’s probably a nice guy, but every time I see him, I see $2,000 drop off the value of my house”.
What was “block-busting”? (Dhruv Jhigan)
-Residential segregation raised the idea of blockbusting, a tactic of real-estate brokers who exaggerated warnings of a impending influx of non-whites, to alarm and persuade white residents to sell their homes quickly. Due to this, some all white neighborhoods became all-minority enclaves rather than places where members of different races lived side by side.
Internet Source on Blockbusting during the 1950s: http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/147.html
- This source is saying that real-estate agents and speculators try to turnover white-owned property and homes to African Americans. It is also called “panic peddling” and causes the expansions of African Americans into neighborhoods that constantly denied them. African American subagents were hired to walk or drive through changing areas soliciting business and otherwise behaving in such a manner as to provoke and exaggerate white fears. Although this type of segregation might seem unjust, this technique had a few benefits. It would help African Americans move into rejected areas and they were able to purchase suburban homes for a fairly cheaper price.
- Even in the media, ads were separated for both colored housing and white housing. There were many attempts made to stop blockbusting, such as the series of ordinances during the 1970s that prevented the placement of “For Sale” and related signs on residential property. It was later ruled unconstitutional. Many other measures were made, such as the promotions of home-equity insurance plans, coalition of groups like “Save Our Neighborhoods/Save Our City”, etc.
The End of Ideology
Selling Free Enterprise
How did popular symbols contribute to the advertisement industry as a part of “selling of free enterprise”? (Mitra Shokri)The “selling of free enterprise greatly involved corporate advertising. The Advertising Council was convinced that ads represented “a new weapon in the world-wide fight for freedom” and therefore invoked cherished symbols like the Statue of Liberty and the Liberty Bell in the service of “competitive free enterprise”.
Why was “free enterprise” important in the Golden Age? (Mitra Shokri)
The “free enterprise” was only available in the United States and Europe .The “free enterprise” encouraged people to start businesses and stimulate the economy. President Truman added the freedom of enterprise to the three freedoms in American way of life. The “selling of free enterprise” involved corporate advertising, school programs, newspaper editorials, and civic activities.
This is an example of an advertisement in 1950s using such symbol as the statue of liberty to sell a product. (Mitra Shokri)
http://nefe.danielsfund.org/free_enterprise/section_one/fes.html
The source explains why free enterprise is so important and how starting your own business is a very important freedom. Owning your own business that is not regulated by the government is beneficial to the consumer, the owner, and the economy. Free enterprise was important to all aspects of American life in the 1950s.
People's Capitalism
Why was free enterprise seen as the most important right in order for the ordinary American to achieve full-fledged freedom? (Dhruv Jhigan)-Large corporations dominated key sectors in the American society. Most Americans had been deeply suspicious of big businesses, recalling the term robber barons of whom would manipulate politics, suppress economic competition, and treated workers unjustly. People’s capitalism became a rising term. It required everyone’s attention to stop this economy from falling into the wrong hands. It was even more crucial since in the 1950s, about 4.5 million Americans owned shares of stock. By the mid 1960s, it had grown to 25 million. The capitalist marketplace had to become a huge part of the American economy and should be taken care of through just means.
What was the Kitchen Debate? (Dhruv Jhigan)
Outside Source: http://www.livinghistoryfarm.org/farminginthe50s/money_02.html
-It was a series of impromptu exchanges between US Vice President Richard Nixon and Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev. It was a meeting that occurred in numerous locations but primarily in the kitchen of a suburban house. It was over the issue of providing the citizens of both countries with good food and shelter. The debate soon escalated into communism vs. capitalism. Basically, Nixon showed how America was able to provide its citizens with abundance in food, whereas the Russian’s were not.
The Libertarian Conservatives
What was libertarian conservatism, and how did it differ from new conservatism? (Katrina Torres)
Libertarian conservatism was more similar in nature to the generic definition of the term, “conservatism.” Vehemently voiced by the economist Milton Friedman, libertarian conservatism decried government intervention in the economy and in people’s lives. According to Friedman, the best economy was one that ran without the hindrance of New Deal legislature, and the best society, was one where people were free to make decisions for themselves. In contrast to this train of thought, new conservatism demanded more regulation on human behavior and a return to the traditional Christian values. According to new conservatists, although the government should mostly keep out of the economy, they should also work to maintain the moral character of all of the country’s citizens.
Excerpts From Milton Friedman’s, Captalism and Freedom: http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/ipe/friedman.htm
1. What were liberal conservatives against?
The liberal conservatives were against the New Deal ideas and wanted less government control, more individual autonomy, and unregulated capitalism.
2. Who was the author of Capitalism and Freedom and what was it about?
Milton Friedman published it in 1962 which identified the free market as the necessary foundation for individual liberty.
3. Where did the ideas of the libertarian conservatives spread to?
They grew in the South and West with businessmen who desired to pursue economic fortunes free of government regulation.
The New Conservatism
What is New Conservatism? Who were some of the most prominent new conservatives - what did they stand for? (Akhil Puri)New Conservatism represents a new brand of thought that became much more common in the 1950s. They believed that the world needed to arm itself morally and intellectually rather than militarily to combat Communism. Writers Russell Kirk and Richard Weaver are well-known new conservatives. They stated that the West should return to a "civilization based on values grounded into the Christian religion and in timeless notions of good and evil." In other words, they endorsed morals and insisted that we do "good" things rather than do morally wrong things for the sake of combating Communism.
The Eisenhower Era
Ike and Nixon
Why did Ike choose the Republicans over the Democrats? Why did Eisenhower appeal to the public so much? (Akhil Puri)Eisenhower could have become the presidential candidate for both the Republicans and the Democrats. He decided to run for the Republican bid because he feared that a particular Senator from Ohio (Robert A. Taft) would win the Republican nomination and he would lead the United States back towards isolationism. He appealed to the public simply because he was a war hero who lead the allied forces into Nazi territory on D-Day. He was not considered a politician but rather a man of integrity with an impressive war record.
The 1952 Campaign
Who were the candidates in the 1952 election? What were the party platforms? What was the outcome? (Akhil Puri)The 1952 campaign was the first in which television was used to promote party candidates. Dwight D. Eisenhower chose to run for the Republicans and made Nixon his running mate. The Democrats nominated Adlai Stevenson (who ran alongside vice president John Sparkman); unfortunately, they were no match against Eisenhower's popularity. The Republicans won a landslide victory, winning 83% of the electoral votes and 55.1% of the popular vote.
Eisenhower repeatedly mentioned that he would get us out of the war in Korea and that he would clean out the White House (most likely because of the scandals and bribes unveiled throughout the Truman administration). Anti-communism, corruption, the war, and balanced budgets were the major issues of the campaign.
Outside Source: 1952: The Election of a Military Hero
Modern Republicanism (Pooja Mhatre)
Q1: What was Eisenhower’s attitude and policy towards/against the New Deal?
A1: Even though Eisenhower cut back government spending, including the military budget in favor of businesses, he never removed the core policies of the New Deal. He even said, “Should any political party attempt to abolish Social Security, unemployment insurance, and eliminate labor laws and farm programs, you would not hear of that party again in our political history.” Eisenhower worked to not only protect basic New Deal programs, but to expand on them. In 1955, millions of agricultural workers became eligible for the first time for Social Security. And he didn’t reduce the size or scope of government.
Eisenhower’s Modern Republicanism is often compared to FDR’s New Deal, but this article in the March 10, 1957 edition of the St. Petersburg Times says otherwise. This article describes the statements of Commerce Secretary Sinclair Weeks who defends Modern Republicanism by saying: “This administration’s actions are different in spirit from the New Deal practices of its predecessors, who tried to pack the Supreme Court, seize the steel mills and draft strikers into the Army.”
Primary Source: http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=888&dat=19570310&id=TdENAAAAIBAJ&sjid=AnYDAAAAIBAJ&pg=5595,3962774
Q2: What is the difference between “free enterprise” and “mixed economy” government? Which one did Eisenhower use?
A2: Free enterprise government is an economic system characterized by private ownership of property and productive resources, the profit motive to stimulate production and competition among businesses. Free enterprise is also known as capitalism. Mixed economy is the philosophy that the government played a major role in planning economic activity. In other words, a mixed economy would have both private ownership and government-controlled businesses. Eisenhower used the mixed economy idea. He presided over the building of the 41,000-mile interstate highway system.
Q3: How was “mixed economy” different in America than it was in Europe?
A3: European countries like Britain and France expanded their welfare states and nationalized key industries like steel, shipbuilding, and transportation through government subsidies. America had a limited welfare state and left most of their businesses in private hands rather than the government.
However, it seems that both the president and the public were displeased with this limited welfare state. In a statement by President Eisenhower upon signing the Welfare and Pension Plans Disclosure Act on August 29, 1958, “I have approved the Welfare and Pension Plans Disclosure Act because it establishes a precedent of federal responsibility in this area. It does little else.” According to Eisenhower, the bill does not protect all of the 85 million workers, and Congress failed to take any action. He goes on to say, “I am sure that the public is as disappointed with it as I am.” He then goes on to list some of the bill’s shortcomings:
1. It requires only summary statements of many important aspects of the financial operations of these plans, making it possible to conceal many abuses.
2. There is no agency of government authorized to provide uniform interpretation of the bill's technical terms. The chaos that will result is obvious. The failure to designate an agency which administrators can consult for reliable and authentic opinions, and for meaningful and uniform report forms, enables corrupt administrators to hide abuses, blocks beneficiaries from receiving adequate information, and subjects administrators to uncertainties in compliance.
3. The bill's reliance solely upon individual employees to compel compliance through court proceedings is most unrealistic. Experience has shown that employee suits alone are inadequate as enforcement remedies. Unaided by governmental authority to conduct investigations and institute litigation, individual employees, without financial resources or legal experience, can be easily intimidated, made subject to reprisals and discouraged from taking effective action.
4. The bill fails to give the Secretary of Labor either investigatory or enforcement powers with respect to reports filed with him. Thus, he is for all practical purposes powerless to uncover abuses.
5. There is no provision for dealing directly with the most flagrant abuses, such as embezzlement and kickbacks, once they are uncovered. Yet this is certainly the kind of protection that the beneficiaries and the public have a right to expect from this legislation.
Primary Source: http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=11202
The Social Contract
(Megha Koduri)Q1: How did the Social Contract benefit both the workers and the employers?
A1: Employers benefited by unions agreeing to regard capital investment, plant location, and output in management's hands, and agreed to prevent unauthorized "wildcat" strikes. Employees benefited from wage increases, private pension plans, health insurance, and automatic adjustments to pay to reflect rises in the cost of living.
Q2: What range of people benefited from the Social Contract?
A2: Workers who were part of unions benefited the most with the social contract, which was made by a union-employer promise essentially. Employers benefited from the compromise as well, with unions limiting strikes and allowing the employers to have control over captial investment, plant location, and output. Ununionized workers also benefited. Though the social contract did not apply to them, it brought benefits. The social contract allowed for a success in setting a minimum wage, which most nonunion workers earned. Though they benefited far less from the social contract, it still led to prosperity even to the non-unionized workers. It seems that the social contract benefited all classes of people while it lasted.
Q3: What led to the demise of the Social Contract?
A3: Nonunion employers fought against labor organization and "groups like the national Association of Manufacturers and viewed unions as unacceptable infringement on the power of employers." many companies and firms shifted jobs to the less unionized suburbs and south. The see industry sought to tighten work rules and imit wage increases in an attempt to boost profits battered by the previous recession. This led to a steelworker strike, and "beat back the proposed changes."
Q4: How important was the Taft-Hartley act in assisting to lighten employer-worker relations?
A4: the Taft-Hartley act in 1947 reduced labor militancy, lessening the anger workers harbored towards their employers. Overall, this act, in combination with the Social Contract of the 50's eased the labor conflict of the two previous decades.
Primary Source ( image ) : http://img517.imageshack.us/img517/3373/tafthartlleybakedtoordego6.gif
Web Source: http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h1667.html and http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/USAhartley.htm
Web Source Summary: Both Sources give a general breakdown of the Act, but say little about its effects or how it was recieved. However, strong wording of the first srouce emphasizes that strictness that was brought on by this Act.
What was the social contract, and why did it cause a massive uprising among non-unionized laborers? (David Hau)
The social contract of the 1950’s (not to be confused with the social contracts proposed by Hobbes and Rousseau in their respective philosophical texts) was an agreement between businesses and unions that involved unions respecting the authority of businesses, and businesses in return maintaining higher standards of payment and work conditions for union members. This practice angered non-unionized laborers, whose numbers had increased dramatically since the passage of the Taft-Hartley Act in 1947, because they did not receive the benefits that their unionized counterparts received. This would lead to a new kind of labor strife between unionized and non-unionized laborers, which would be partly alleviated by the raising of minimum wages for all workers.
Massive Retaliation
(David Hau)Who was John Foster Dulles, and how did his proposal for dealing with the Soviet Union lead to elevated cautiousness regarding a three-letter acronym synonymous with anger?
John Foster Dulles was the Secretary of State in the Eisenhower administration, and he proposed an update to the policy of containment that included “massive retaliation” in the form of nuclear attacks on the Soviet Union should they attempt to make advances on American allies. This statement was widely criticized as “brinksmanship,” an obvious attempt to court disaster. The three-letter acronym, “MAD,” or “mutual assured destruction” became a focal point of the dealings between the United States and the Soviet Union, since both sides wished to avoid nuclear warfare at all costs. MAD can basically be summarized as, “whoever shoots first, dies second.”
http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-weapons/history/cold-war/strategy/strategy-mutual-assured-destruction.htm
Ike and the Russians (Matthew Do)
In Eisenhower’s Inaugural address, what statement made Eisenhower rethink about his plan of action towards Russia and why?“Freedom is pitted against slavery; lightness against dark” is the quote that Eisenhower thought was necessary in order to take certain actions against Russia. Although, at the end of the Korean War and the death of Stalin, it had convince him that he would be able to solve matters in diplomatic terms.
What actions were taken place by Russians and the United States?
The new Soviet Leader, Nikita Khrushchev who was at the first Summit conference actually called on for a peaceful coexistence. It was to make an easier transition after the Cold War. Many say it was to “thaw” and allow both sides to be neutral or even on good terms with each other, but there were times when the Soviet Union did not ease many conservative Republicans such as the incident with the Soviet troops putting down an anticommunist uprising in Hungary. 1958, the two superpowers actually agreed to a voluntary halt to the testing of nuclear weapons. This pause lasted until 1961. Suddenly many events caused both sides to feel tension towards each other. Such as a spy that worked for the U.S that the Soviets caught and was bought as evidence, Eisenhower denied the fact that there was a spy the first time around.
http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/RUSkhrushchev.htm
This websites details more about Nikita Khrushchev as he becomes the new Soviet Union leader. It reveals is action plan and specially talk about the meeting and how he actually canceled the Paris Summit Conference in 1960 when a plan was shot down over the Soviet Union. The tension that are between the Soviet and U.S during those times reveal the hardships of the Cold War and how it has effected the relationship of both these countries.
The Emergence of the Third World (Jason Chong)
- What is the Third world?
- The "Third World" is a term to describe the countries that were not aligned with the two powers; communist East and capitalist West. They desired to find their own model of development between Soviet economic planning and the capitalist free market. The Bandung conference announced the emergence of a new force in global affairs that contained a majority of the world's population.
- What did the phrase "Winds of change", said by British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan, refer to?
- "Winds of change" referred to the massive decolonization of the European empire post-WWII. This started with India and Pakistan achieving independence in 1947, followed by Ghana, a British Gold colony in West Africa, ten years later. Soon after many more nations gained independence. This scared the US because these new nations became power vacuums that communist could move into, but most new nations tried to stay neutral during the Cold War.
(Rhea Vera)What was the Bandung Conference?
- The Bandung Conference brought leaders of twenty-nine Asian and African nations together in Indonesia in 1955 and seemed to announce the emergence of a new force in global affairs (representing a majority of the world's population). These countries were unable to avoid the strong effects of the political, military, and economic contest of the Cold War.
- The countries included: Afghanistan, Cambodia, China, Egypt, Ethiopia, the Gold Coast (Ghana), Iran, Iraq, Japan, Jordan, Laos, Lebanon, Liberia, Libya, Nepal, the Philippines, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria, Thailand, Turkey, the Vietnam Democratic Republic, South Vietnam (later reunified with the Democratic Republic of Vietnam) and Yemen (Republic of Yemen).The Conference was chaired by Indonesian Prime Minister Ali Sastroamidjojo and Indonesian President Sukarno made an opening address entitled "Let a New Asia and a New Africa be Born".
- After two days of plenary sessions, the conference was divided into three committees, namely political, economic and cultural. And they deliberated behind closed door for five days during which they discussed such issues as national sovereignty, racism, nationalism and struggles against colonialism, world peace and economic and cultural cooperation among the participating countries.
- The conference reached consensus on the mutual interests and some issues of major concern to the Asian African countries and a "Final Communiqu" was adopted the contents of which included economic cooperation, cultural cooperation, human rights and self-determination, the issue of people in dependent countries, other issues, promotion of world peace and cooperation as well as the adoption of the Declaration on Promotion of World Peace and Cooperation and listed ten principles in handling international relations. The spirit of unity of the Asian and African people, opposing imperialism and colonialism, struggle for the defense of national independence and world peace and the promotion of friendship among the peoples as demonstrated at the Conference is known as the "Bandung Spirit". The Conference enhanced the unity and cooperation among the Asian and African countries, inspired the people in the colonies to struggle for national liberation and played a significant role in promoting the anti-imperialist and anti-colonialist struggle of the Asian and African people and in consolidating their unity.
(facts are from: http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2005-04/20/content_435929.htm)
How did decolonization affect the United States, communists, and noncommunists?
- Decolonization presented the U.S. with a complex set of choices by creating "power vacuums" in the former colonies into which Americans feared communists would move. The Soviet Union strongly supported the dissolution of Europe's overseas empires. Communists participated and supported movements for colonial independence. Noncommunist leaders saw socialism as the best route to achieving economic independence and narrowing social inequalities brought about by imperialism. Most of the new Third World powers hoped to remain neutral in the Cold War by not aligning themselves with either major "power bloc".
How did the American struggle for independence influence others?
- Many nationalists admired the United States and saw the struggle as a model for their own struggles. Ho Chi Minh, a communist leader of the Vietnamese movement against rule by France, modeled his 1945 proclamation of nationhood on the American Declaration of Independence. He requested that President Truman establish a protectorate over Vietnam to guarantee its independence.
This is Ho Chi Minh's telegram to President Truman.
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/HoChiMinhTelegramToTruman1946.png
The Cold War in the Third World ( Jason Chong )
The Cold War in the Third world Conference at Ohio State
Origins of the Vietnam War (Mariel Hernandez)
1. In a nutshell what was some of the causes of the Vietnam War?
o Anticommunism movement and ideals.
o World War II and the question of what would happen to the French colony Indochina.
o Division of Geneva Accords
o Ho Chi Minh using guerilla warfare tactics.
o The Diem regime targeting the South with his campaign called “denounce the communists”.
2. Why did France have no alternative but to agree to Vietnamese independence?
Ike declined to send in American troops when France wanted to avoid defeat and later he rejected National Security Council’s advice to use nuclear weapons.
3. How did America become involved with the French during mid-1940s?
Anticommunism led to the U.S. becoming more involved. And Truman enforced a policy that made the Eisenhower administration funneled billions of dollars in aid to strengthen French efforts.
4. What were the effects of American leaders favoring deals with reliable military regimes rather than democratic governments?
Although pervious involvement with events in Guatemala, Iran, and Vietnam brought success it was a different scenario when military governments succeeded Arbenz. They decided to change social reforms bringing three decades of depression causing about 2 hundred thousand Guatemalan causalities. And further involvement would lead to the most disastrous decision of entanglement in American history.
I decided to analyze the first question because it focused on the actual war rather than who sided with who however, it talks about how America favored Prime minister Diem from South Vietnam. The first picture is of Ho Chi Minh the ruler of North Vietnam after Vietnam was split due to the Geneva Accords. Ho Chi Minh used guerrilla tactics against South Vietnam and Diem launched his campaign against communist which were mainly located in North however, he also targeted Buddhists. This also connects with the ideals of anticommunism and how it had such a big impact on not only America but other countries internationally as well. Below is a picture of Eisenhower and Diem shaking hands after Diem gets off his flight to America. And here is a link to a picture of the two ridding in a car also during Diem's trip. http://www.travelblog.org/Photos/4484622
And here are some written primary sources that I found that were really interesting from PBS http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/vietnam/psources/index.html
Online Sources: http://militaryhistory.about.com/od/vietnamwar/a/VietnamOrigins.htm http://www.historyplace.com/unitedstates/vietnam/
Mass Society and Its Critics
(Carissa Quiambao)Why did Eisenhower seem like the perfect leader for society in the 1950s?
It was because he was a fatherly figure that seemed the perfect leader for the placid society of the 1950s, form which consensus was the dominant ideal and McCarthyism was identified as disloyalty.
How did some intellectuals feel about this freedom, which was more associated with freedom in private pleasures, not the public sphere?
Some intellectuals wondered whether the celebration of affluence and the either-or mentality of the Cold War obscured the extent to which the US fell short of freedom. Modern mass society, some writers felt, inevitably produced loneliness and anxiety, causing mankind to yearn for stability and authority, not freedom. Some thought Russians demonstrated a greater ability to sacrifice for common public goals.
Who were some people who opposed the newly defined "freedom" of the US during this time, and what were their works/arguments?
In 1957, political scientist Hans J. Morgenthau noted that free enterprise had created "new accumulations" of power "as dangerous to the freedom of the individual as the power of the government had ever been".
Also, Sociologist C. Wright Mills challeneged the self-satisfied vision of democratic pluralism of mainstream political science in the 1950s and discussed a "power elite"-- an interlocking directorate of corporate leaders, politicians, and military men whose domination of government and society had made political democracy obsolete. Similarly, The Lonely Crowd (1950), sociologist David Riesman described Americans as "other directed" conformists who locked the inner resources to lead truly independent lives.
The Affluent Society
The Affluent Society (1958) by economist John Kenneth Galbraith asks what kind of nation neglects investment schools, parks & public services while producing more good for advertising? The Organization Man (1956) by William Whyte and The Hidden Persuaders (1957) by Vance Packard are also works of criticism which criticize the monotony of modern work, the emptiness of suburban life, and the pervasive influence of advertising.
(In association to the above question, the following outside source is an opinion story for TIME magazine written Jun. 02, 1958)
OPINION: The Affluent Society
This opinion article concerning economist John Kenneth Galbraith's The Affluent Society discusses the general idea of what the book is about: basically that Adam Smith's capitalistic economy is now "obsolete" because, at the time the theory was expressed was a time of economic scarcity. Now, however (says Galbraith), society spends too much time trying to obtain material items they do not need and thus the "private" sphere has disrupted the "social balance" by owning way too many useless, pretty items that lack any contribution to the public sphere. This TIME magazine article argues that, why Galbraith points the finger at the government's lack of control over society, he fails to generate a concrete solution to the issue. I like how the article ended, saying that, "Galbraith has found it easier to sketch the problem than provide the answers." (Read more: http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,893998,00.html#ixzz0krGh3AeF)
Did critic of mass society make accomplish relaying their ideals?
No, criticism of mass society failed to dent widespread complacency about the American way
Rebels Without a Cause
[Maria David]::What did J.D Salinger's 1951 novel Catcher in the Rye and the 1955 films Blackboard Jungle and Rebel Without a Cause highlight? -The novels and films highlighted the alienation of at least some young people from the world of adult respectability.
;;Catcher in the Rye highlights the feelings that may have been present in teenagers during the time, and through Catcher in the Rye readers see into the mind of Holden Caulfield.
"Caulfield's self-destruction over a period of days forces one to contemplate society's attitude toward the human condition. Salinger's portrayal of Holden, which includes incidents of depression, nervous breakdown, impulsive spending, sexual exploration, vulgarity, and other erratic behavior, have all attributed to the controversial nature of the novel." (http://www.levity.com/corduroy/salinger1.htm)
;;The Films Blackboard Jungle and Rebel Without a Cause continue to highlight the rebelliousness going on amongst teens.
"Crucially, as a 1950s melodrama, Rebel Without a Cause calls attention to the instability of conventional gender and social relations. Its critique of society is biting because it targets exactly those institutions of mass social or bourgeois life – family, home, school – meant to be uplifting, stable, and safe but that can turn out to be alienating and victimising." (http://archive.sensesofcinema.com/contents/cteq/07/42/rebel-without-cause.html)
Rebels Without A Cause
(Link to the official website of the off-broadway production)
::Why did the Senate committee hold hearings in 1954? What did publishers do to head off federal regulation?
-The Senate committee held hearings in 1954 to discuss whether or not violent comic books caused criminal behavior among young people. Publishers adopted a code of conduct for their industry that strictly limited the portrayal of crime and violence in comic books.
::What was cultural life for a teenager like in the 1950s?
-Teenagers began to wear leather jackets, danced to rock and roll music that brought about hard-driving ryhthms and sexually provocative movements of black musicians and dancers to enthusiastic white audiences.
::What extended the costumer culture into the most intimate realms of life in the 1960s? What did it offer men?
-The rise of the Playboy magazine that reached a circulation of over 1 million copies per month was what extended the costumer culture into the most intimate realms of life in the 1960s. It offered men a fantasy world of sexual gratification outside the family's confines.
The Beats
[Maria David]::Who were the Beats? Who coined the term "beats"?
-The Beats were a small group of poets and writers that railed against mainstream culture. Novelist Jack Keroauc coined the term "beat" which was a play on "beaten down" and "beatified."
::What did Jack Keroauc's book On the Road recount?
-It recounted its main character's aimless wanderings across the American landscape.
::Who was Allen Ginsberg? What happened in San Francisco that made him nationally known?
-Allen Ginsberg was a beat poet who wrote Howl, a book that protested against materialism and conformism. In San Francisco (1956) Ginsberg's book was confiscated and the police arrested people bookstore owners for selling his "obscene" work.
::What did the Beats celebrate by rejecting the work ethic, the "desperate materialism" of the middle class, and the militarization of American life by the Cold War?
-They celebrated impulsive action, immediate pleasure, and sexual experimentation.
Origins of the Movement and The Legal Assault on Segregation
(Alexander Moll)
1. What did “An American Dilemma” suggest about racial inequality?
The challenge to racial inequality would arise in the North because that was where blacks had far greater opportunities for political organization.
2. How did half of the nation’s black families live during the 1950’s?
Half of the nations blacks lived in poverty and they were segregated in the US. Because of labor contracts that linked promotions and firings to seniority, non-white workers who had joined the industrial labor force later than whites, lost their jobs first in times of economic downturn.
3. What did the LULAC (League of United Latin American Citizens) do?
They challenged restrictive housing, employment discrimination, and the segregation of Latino students. They won an important victory in 1946 in the case of Mendez v. Westminster, when the CA Supreme Court ordered the schools of Orange County desegregated.
According to http://www.npc.umich.edu/poverty/, poverty for sub-groups such as blacks was considerably higher than whites. Also, black families headed by women had the highest poverty rates among all the families.
The Freedom Movement
Origins of the Movement
The Legal Assault on Segregation
The Brown Case (Julia Wrona)
Why did Oliver Brown go to the Supreme Court?-Oliver Brown went to the Supreme Court because his daughter was forced to walked across railroad tracks to go to school even though there was a school near her house but she couldn’t go to it because it was an all white school. People agreed with the lawsuit Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas because they could not understand how America was said to have freedom, justice, and democracy but they would not give equal rights to Blacks. The new chief justice, Earl Warren, agreed and the court decision decided that segregation in public education was a violation of the equal protection of the laws guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment. This decision was hailed by black press as a “second Emancipation Proclamation” because it stopped segregation in schools.
The Montgomery Bus Boycott (Julia Wrona)
How was the Montgomery Bus Boycott started and what was the outcome?The Montgomery Bus Boycott was started when a black tailor’s assistant, Rosa Parks, refused to get up for a white person on the bus and was arrested on December 1, 1955. This unfair arrest sparked a boycott that blacks would not ride the bus until they had equal rights. After a year long boycott where people walked or took taxis rather then the bus the Supreme Court finally ruled in November 1956 that segregation in public transportation unconstitutional. This bus boycott was a turning point in postwar America because it launched the movement for racial justice as a nonviolent crusade based from the black churches in the South.
Who was Rosa Parks?
Rosa Parks was a black tailor’s assistant and a veteran of black politics. During the 1930s she took part in meetings that protested the conviction of the Scottsboro Boys. She also served as a secretary to E.D. Nixon, a local leader of NAACP. She also tried to vote in 1943 but was turned away because she failed the literacy test. After two more times she was finally allowed to vote, a big triumph in her city because only a few blacks could vote.
Internet source:
Rosa Parks was born in Tuskegee, Alabama with barely any civil rights given to her. When she was a child she heard the Klan ride at night and heard the lynches going on. After attending college she moved with her husband to Montgomery and joined the local NAACP to worked to improve lives of African Americans in the South. After the bus incident there was a formation of the Montgomery Improvement Association which called for the boycott of the city-owned bus company. After its success Mrs. Parks and her husband moved to Detroit and served on the staff if U.S. Representative John Conyers. After her death she was laid in state at the capitol, the first women and the second African American in history.
http://www.achievement.org/autodoc/page/par0bio-1
The Daybreak of Freedom [Ali Giron]
What did the Montgomery bus boycott do?
It was a turning point in history because it launched the movement for racial justice through a non-violence approach. In addition this movement the support of northern liberals and focused its attention of the nation’s racial policies. Lastly, it served as the marker for the emergence of Martin Luther King Jr.
Why did King come to Montgomery?
He came to become the pastor of a Baptist church but he became so much more. On the night of the protest meeting, King energized the people with his speech, talking about how they had suffered long enough and they were finally reaching out for their freedom.
Why did the cardboard that was placed on a bus shelter on the day of Rosa Park's court appearance say "Don't ride the buses today. Don't ride it for freedom." ?
The word freedom was one that was used in the black movement. It was used in the speeches given by civil rights leaders and in the place cards of the struggles of all the soldiers.
What were the different definitions of freedom?
Some people defined freedom as a very specific freedom like going to the public libraries while others defined it as legal equality, liberation from years of deference and fears of white, and freedom of the mind. Adults saw freedom as being able to enjoy the same political and economic opportunities that whites did as well as being served at counters and departments stores and to be addressed as "Mr.", "Miss", and "Mrs." as opposed to being referred to as "boy" and "auntie". Lastly, it meant making all the past wrongs, right. These wrongs included segregation, disenfranchisement, confinement to low-wage jobs, and the threat of violence.
The Leadership of King
What did King’s “I Have a Dream” speech do? It gave the people one clear definition of what the word 'freedom' meant. In addition, it promised the unfulfilled promise of emancipation. Website Link: http://www.lagcc.cuny.edu/ctl/mlk/dream.htmHow did the writings of Gandhi and Thoreau influence King?
King read the works of Gandhi and Thoreau as well as the nonviolent protests of Racial Equality to help organize his philosophy of struggler where hate and evil must be met with evil and Christian love as well as a peaceful demands for change. He declared that no white person would be taken outside of their home to be lynched as the white people had done to the African Americans.
How did King appeal to “white” America?
He used the same approach that Frederick Douglass had which was stressing the protesters' love for their country and their devotion to national values. This freedom meant a whole new world for American society. King also drew from W. E. B. Du Bois' approach and linked the African American's struggle in America with the humiliation of the non-white people overseas. He asked, if Africa can have its freedom, why must 'black America lag behind?'.
Massive Resistance
What were some of the means by which people resisted desegregation? (Francesca Rebosura)There were a variety of ways whites resisted. One such way was through the Southern Manifesto, a document in which 82 of the 106 southern congressmen signed that denounced the Brown decision and called for the resistance of "forced integration." In addition, some states made it illegal for the NAACP to operate. Some went to more drastic measures, though. For instance, Virginia closed public schools that were ordered to integrate and offered money to white children so that they would be able to attend private school. Lastly, Georgia showed their resistance by changing their state flag in 1956 to the Confederate battle flag.
What was the Southern Christian Leadership and who took lead of it? (Sarah Creely)
A coalition of black ministers and civil rights activists and they pressed for desegregation. Martin Luther King took lead in 1956.
Even though the movement was successful in popular motivation, what was wrong?
The Montgomery fathers only accepted the boycott’s demand after the Supreme Court ruling showed that local wouldn’t be able to overturn Jim Crow laws without national backing. But the white south refused to accept this. They still didn’t believe that blacks could get their rights at all. The only way would have to be with Washington helping them.
What caused “massive resistance”?
The Supreme Court ruled in 1955 that desegregation should proceed “with all deliberate speed.” This though was very vague and unintentionally caused a campaign of resisting desegregation that ended up paralyzing most of the civil rights progression in the South.
Link: http://www.amren.com/ar/2008/02/05b-CitizensCouncil.jpg
This image shows a picture of a snake wrapped around a school with integration written on its body and a man with a halo but a stake with a nail in it behind his back, he represents the supreme court. and then there's fire above the snake. This image represents how southerners felt about the Supreme court forcing them to integrate their schools. They saw it as an act against them.
What happened in the southern states that stopped desegregation?
http://teacher.scholastic.com/scholasticnews/indepth/upfront/features/index.asp?article=f090307_TP. In this article it talks about Little Rock Central High School. Nine black students had tried to enter the school but the President had to use the federal troops to get them to go into the school. They then graduated from the school. Most southern states resented the ruling from the Brown vs. Board of Education of Topeka, which overturned the “separate but equal” principle est. in the Plessy vs. Ferguson case. Then in Washington, some senators and Congressmen signed the Southern Manifesto that denounced the Brown ruling and told southern states to keep fighting it.
(Eleanor LaBarbera)
1. Why did the Supreme Court ruling in the Brown case do almost no good?
The Montgomery’s city fathers only agreed to the boycott because of the Supreme Court ruling. It was clear that without national backing there would be no local effort to follow through with the ruling that was set forth. Washington would have to intervene if the blacks were ever to have the hope of gaining constitutional rights.
2. Why did nothing happen after the Supreme Court ruled that desegregation to proceed “with all deliberate speed”?
After the Supreme Court said, “with all deliberate speed” it was left up to the interpretation of the Southerners who did not want desegregation. They took this vague statement and turned it into another reason to stall black people gaining their rights known as the “massive resistance”
3. What was the Southern Manifesto?
The Southern Manifesto was signed by 82 out of the 106 southern congressmen as well as every southern senator with the exceptions of Lyndon B. Johnson, Albert Gore, and Estes Kefauver. The main purpose of the Southern Manifesto was to declare that the Brown decision was an abuse of judicial power and called for resistance against the forced integration.
4. What did Virginia do in order to support the massive resistance?
Virginia closed all of the public schools that were ordered to desegregate and only gave funding to white children so they would be able to attend private schools. A county in Virginia names Prince Edward County even went as far as to shut down all of their schools in 1959 until the Supreme Court ordered them to be reopened in 1964.
5. How did other states support the massive resistance?
Most other states just gave the white students the opportunity to choose whether or not they would attend a school where black students also attended, which was known as the “freedom of choice” plans. Another specific state’s resistance would be Georgia in that they incorporated the Confederate battle flag into their own state flag in 1956. Alabama and South Carolina followed Georgia’s example and took it one step further when they began flying the flag over the state capitol buildings.
Web source: http://www.vahistorical.org/civilrights/massiveresistance.htm
1. How did the Virginian Senator Harry F. Byrd, Sr. influence the massive resistance?
It was said that in 1954 Senator Byrd Sr. had control over Virginia politics and it was him who had started the massive resistance. He called for the Southern States to oppose segregation and was the one who had the idea to close down Southern schools in Virginia and give financial aide to the parents that were against segregation.
Image: http://www.vahistorical.org/civilrights/36.htm
Eisenhower and Civil Rights
What happened with the first national civil rights law? (Sarah Creely)Congress passed the law in 1957 and it targeted the denial of blacks to vote. But this law was not enforced very much and didn’t add very many voters to the polls
How did southern schools react when they were forced to let blacks go to their school?
In 1956, a federal court ordered Autherine Lucy to be allowed to go to University of Alabama. But a mob stopped her from registering and in the end the board of trustees expelled her. Only in 1960’s were blacks finally allowed to go to the university. A year later, the Governor of Arkansas used the National Guard to prevent black students from going to school in Little Rock. Eisenhower then sent federal troops to that city that escorted black students into school. This showed that
How were Lyndon B. Johnson and Eisenhower different on the role of civil rights? (David Rasay)
Johnson hoped to gain the Liberal support for his presidential campaign of 1960. He aided and strove for the passing of the first civil rights law since reconstruction in 1957. This law targeted the denial of black voting in the South, however with weak enforcement, it added few voters to the rolls.
President Ike, on the other hand, did not provide moral leadership for this new civil rights law. Eisenhower is known to have not cared for the civil rights movement, finding it distasteful he only asked Americans to abide by it. In another case displaying his dispassion, in a 1956 a federal court order asked Autherine Lucy to be admitted to the University of Alabama. However, mobs prevented her from registering and the school expelled her, without the intervention of Ike.
This political cartoon by Herblock further pointed Eisenhower’s unwillingness to act upon the urgent matter of the civil rights crisis (fire) even though he is the commander in chief (fireman chief). Much like his role with the Civil Rights Law of 1957, he plays a passive role in the cartoon.
Why was Eisenhower’s military display at Little Rock ineffective in integrating schools across the South? (David Rasay)
Eisenhower’s use of the 101st Airborne Division was ineffective because the passion and motivation to support integration was not there. Some argue that Eisenhower only used such means to show off his power. These events in Little Rock showed that in the last instance, the federal government would not allow the flagrant violation of court orders. But because of the massive resistance met, the pace of movement slowed in the final years of the 1950s.
http://www.nps.gov/history/nr/TwHP/wwwlps/lessons/crandall/CRfacts2.htm
This document explores the specific details of the court orders and the experiences of the Little Rock Nine. In regards to the effectiveness of integration, It notes that the Little Rock School Board and Governor Faubus were very concentrated on avoiding desegregation and did almost anything to avoid that. The Governor went as far as to close the school to avoid segregation. These passionate actions when confronted by Eisenhower’s less-than-motivated solutions are what prevented a successful integration in the school system.
The Election of 1960
Kennedy and Nixon
What were the candidates for the presidential election of 1960?The Republicans decided to choose former Vice President Richard Nixon as their candidate while Democrats chose to go with John F. Kennedy.
Why were Protestants hesitant to vote for a Catholic? How did Kennedy respond to this? What was a sign that would put the issue of religion at rest?
The Protestants feared that Kennedy would be required to support church doctrine on controversial public issues or to even an extreme extent, to follow the orders of the pope. In response to their fears, Kennedy addressed the issue by publicly stating, "I do not speak for my church on public matters and the church does not speak for me." A symbol that put the issue of Kennedy's religion to rest was when he was able to defeat Humphrey in the Democratic primary in the overwhelming Protestant West Virginia.
What evidence did Kennedy use to point out that the US had lost the sense of national purpose that was necessary to fight the Cold War?
Kennedy's evidence consisted of the Soviet's success in putting Sputnik, the first earth satellite, into orbit and subsequently testing the first intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM).
Web Source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IPpDSpiCBEU
Video is an overview of the 1960 Presidential Election between Richard Nixon and John F. Kennedy.
Image: http://www.jfklibrary.org/NR/rdonlyres/20067DB6-5409-4119-92A5-0698D8544FD8/17302/20067DB65409411992A50698D8544FD8.jpg
Image shows the electoral ballot results of the closes Presidential Election in history.
The End of the 1960s
What did Eisenhower warn Americans about in his farewell speech? What were the American's reaction towards his warning?
He urged for Americans to think about the dangerous power of what he called the "military-industrial complex" - the conjunction of "an immense military establishment" with a "permanent arms industry" - with an influence felt in "every office" in every land. In response to his warning, few Americans felt the same concerns as he did and saw the alliance of the Defense Department and private industry as a source of jobs and national security rather than a threat to democracy.
How did Thomas Midgley have more impact on the atmosphere than any other organism?
Thomas MIdgley was a research scientist for General Motors who developed both leaded gasoline and chlorofluorocarbons. The leaded gasoline was found in the million of cars that made suburban life which were spewing toxic lead into the atmosphere. The toxic acid would then create a type of air pollution produced by cars called smog. Chlorofluorocarbons, used in air conditions, deodorants, and aerosol hair sprays, were releasing chemicals into the atmosphere that damaged the ozone layer, producing global warming and an increase to skin cancer.
The Sixties, 1960-1968
The Freedom Movement
The Rising Tide of Protest (Janani Ravikrishnan)
What was the Greensboro launch and what did it achieve?
• There were 4 black students that entered a Woolworth’s department store and sat down for lunch in an area only for whites. They were told they would not be served, but relentlessly came back day after day for 5 months . In July Woolworth’s decided to serve black’s.
• It was a major achievement because the black people persevered and continued to not stand for injustice, which proved to be worthwhile because they got some equality.
Online info :http://www.sitins.com/
• 4 students: Jibreel khazan, Franklin Eugene McCaln, Joseph Alfred McNEll, and David Linall Richmond
• I was fascinated when I was looking at this website and I found that President Barack Obama made reference to this sit in on January 29th, 2010. He stated that to this day this act has impacted us. He also said thanks to the 4 men who inspired him.
• All 4 were studying at A&T
• 1994 Khazan received an honorary doctorate from A&T for his role in the civil rights movement.
• 1993 McCain received the Nancy Susan Reynolds Award for leadership
• 2002-McNeil received the village of Hempstead’s Medal of Honor
• To Richmond A&T awarded him a posthumous honorary doctorate degree. He died in 1990 at 49 years of age.
image:http://americanhistory.si.edu/Brown/history/6-legacy/images/sit-in.jpg
What did the movements in the 1960’s challenge? How were they different from those in the 1950’s?
• They challenged the 50’sunderstanding of freedom linked to the cold war aboard and the consumer choice at home.
• They forced a reconsideration of the nation’s foreign policy and extended claims to freedom into the most intimate areas of life.
• They made American society confront the fact that certain groups felt excluded from American freedom.
Who is Ella Baker? What came out of her gathering?
• Ella Baker was a longtime civil rights organizer.
• She called for a meeting of young activists in Raleigh North Carolina
• About 200 black students and a few whites attended.
• They formed the Student Non-violent coordinating committee (SNCC) which dedicated to replacing the culture of segregation with a “ beloved community” of racial justice and to empower blacks to take control of decisions affecting their lives
What did the congress of racial equality do?
• CORE Launched the Freedom Rides.
• Integrated groups traveled by bus to deep south to test compliance with court banning segregation
Birmingham
Melissa DesuyoIn what ways was Birmingham, Alabama a violent city? What were its oppressed people fighting for?
There were numerous bombings on black homes and institutions in the city of Birmingham since World War II. Blacks protested over the inequality in education, employment, and housing. They demonstrated for greater opportunities in the economy and an end to segregation by local businesses, although they would produce no result.
To whom did Martin Luther King Jr.'s "Letter from Birmingham Jail" address? What was described in the letter?
King, begging for racial justice, responded to local clergymen who counseled patience. He relates the litany of abuses faced by black southerners by police brutality to the daily humiliation of having to explain to their children why they couldn't enter amusement parks or public swimming pools. Kind declared the "white moderate" must put aside fear of disorder and commit to racial justice.
Online source: http://www.historynet.com/martin-luther-king-jrs-letter-from-birmingham-city-jail.htm
The source considers the letter to be a classic of world literature. It was a response to a group of local white clergymen who denounced King's nonviolent protest demanding an end to the demonstrations for esegregation of lunch counters, restrooms, and stores. The letter had to be smuggled out of the jail in parts by his attorneys.
MLK's Birmingham City Jail mugshot.
What did King decide to do concerning the streets of Birmingham in May 1963? What resulted in the happening?
King sent black schoolchildren out on the streets of Birmingham as a means of protest. A TV broadcast of this happening showed police forces assaulting the children with nightsticks, high-pressure fire hoses, and attack dogs. The brutality sent a wave of horror throughout the world, and Birmingham became a campaign in a triumph for the civil rights movement. Leading businessman feared the city was becoming a symbol of brutality and made an end to the demonstrations that desegregated public facilities, promising that black salespeople would be hired.
The March on Washington
Jordan Overshoun-HallWhat were the main goals of the March on Washington?
The coalition of people called for the passage of a civil rights bill pending before Congress as well a public-works program to reduce the unemployment number, an increase in the minimum wage, and a law that would get rid of discrimination in the work world.
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 demonstrated the March’s demands. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 “created the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission to address race and sex discrimination in employment and a Community Relations Service to help local communities solve racial disputes; authorized federal intervention to ensure the desegregation of schools, parks, swimming pools, and other public facilities; and restricted the use of literacy tests as a requirement for voter registration.”
Voting Rights Act of 1965__ “abolished literacy tests and poll taxes designed to disenfranchise African American voters, and gave the federal government the authority to take over voter registration in counties with a pattern of persistent discrimination.”
http://mlkkpp01.stanford.edu/index.php/encyclopedia/encyclopedia/enc_march_on_washington_for_jobs_and_freedom/
What did the March on Washington demonstrate?
It reflected and unprecedented degree of black-white cooperation in support of racial and economic injustice. The march also exhibited some of the movement’s limitations and tensions. Such as there being only male speakers at the Lincoln Memorial. Including Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. (I Have a Dream)
The Kennedy Years
Anika AdeniWhat was represented by Kennedy’s short, three- year presidency?
Kennedy’s term in office is viewed as a period of youthful glamour, soaring hopes, and dynamic domestic and international leadership.
What did Kennedy’s Inaugural Speech seem to urge Americans to do?
Kennedy’s speech urged Americans to think beyond themselves, and do more for others and their country.
Kennedy considered what his main focus, and what key movement did he ignore?
Kennedy’s main focus was the Cold War, while he ignored race/segregation politics and events, even though he had addressed it while campaigning.
Web Source: http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/john_kennedy_and_civil_rights.htm
It says that although Kennedy did nearly nothing while he was in office, after his death he had a big impact on the Civil Rights Movement. He put his brother into office as head of the Justice Department to help civil rights along. He also used federal power to try to stop segregation a little.
Image Source: http://whitehouser.com/wp-content/uploads/2008/02/jfk_mlk.jpg
JFK with MLK Jr.
Kennedy and the World
What is the Peace Corps? (Francesca Rebosura)The Peace Corps was one of the Kennedy administrations first acts that had the purpose of sending young Americans abroad to aid in the economic and educational progress of developing countries, as well as to improve the image of the United States. As a result, over 15,000 young men and women were abroad serving as Peace Corps volunteers by 1966.
http://www.commondreams.org/files/article_images/peacecorps0924.jpg
What was Kennedy's new policy towards Latin America? (Francesca Rebosura)
Kennedy's new policy, the Alliance for Progress, was created in order to promote political and material freedom. It was a Marshall Plan for the Western Hemisphere that began with many cries about alleviating poverty and counteracting the appeal of communism. The plan eventually failed due to military regimes and local elites who controlled the Alliance for Progress aid because they enriched themselves, preventing the poor to truly find benefit from the program.
The Missile Crisis
What was "the most dangerous crisis" of the Kennedy administration and the Cold War and why? (Francesca Rebosura)The most dangerous crisis was the discovery that the Soviet Union was installing missiles in Cuba capable of reaching the US with nuclear weapons in October of 1962. This was the most dangerous crisis because, as a result, the world could have been faced with an all-out nuclear war. For thirteen days, the world was faced with this dilemma, but it eventually ended in compromises in which the Soviet Union would withdraw the missiles, Kennedy and the US would pledge not to invade Cuba, and secretly, the US would remove the American Jupiter missiles from Turkey, which could reach the Soviet Union.
What came about between the US and the Soviet Union in the summer of 1963? (Francesca Rebosura)
In the summer of 1963, both countries agreed to a treaty in which the testing of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere and in space was banned.
Web Source: http://www.jfklibrary.org/Historical+Resources/JFK+in+History/Nuclear+Test+Ban+Treaty.htm
This treaty, was signed on August 5, 1963 and was the Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty. In addition to the atmosphere and space, it also bans the testing of nuclear weapons under water, but it does allow for underground nuclear tests as long as there is no radioactive debris that escapes the country conducting the test. Lastly, the treaty includes the working towards complete disarmament and the end of environmental harm by radioactive substances. This was ratified in the US on October 7, 1963.
http://www.jfklibrary.org/NR/rdonlyres/48511AB3-7A2C-4E60-8585-7C76CA85EBE2/24372/KNC30095testban1.jpg
Kennedy and Civil Rights
Gaby Lee
Why was president kennedy reluctant to do anything about civil rights at first?
- at first kennedy thought that civil rights was the least of his worries, especially with the missile crisis.
- But in 1963 civil rights became top priority
- He shared the same belief as FBI director J. Edgar Hoover that the movement was inspired by communism, and even had the FBI spying on King, but he waited until 1962 to make this order
- He only used federal force when it was apparent that the law was being broken, but did not protect civil rights workers from violence, insisting that law enforcement was a local matter
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- http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/john_kennedy_and_civil_rights.htm
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What made Kennedy change his mind?
- when children were being beaten, hosed and chased by dogs in Birmingham, Kennedy decided to change his mind
- this is when he realized that it would be contradictory for America to call itself the champion of freedom when it’s own citizens did not have full freedom
- when he went on national television to vouche for the passage of a law against discrimination in all public accomidations, he said, “We preach freedom around the world…, but are we to say to the world, and much more importantly, to each other, that this is a land of the free except for Negroes?”
Why did Kennedy not see his civil rights bill enacted?
- on November 22,1963- Kennedy was probably assassinated (while on a motorcade in Dallas, Texas) by Lee Harvey Oswald, a troubled former soldier who was killed two days later by a nightclub owner while in police custody
- his death is shrouded in mystery because Oswald was killed before he was proven guilty
external source:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSBXW1-VGmM
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BsaadJ7G6Lc&feature=related
it seems that the assassin Oswald was only an attention starved man. he had lived a life of loneliness and alienation, his mother frequently reminded him and his siblings that they were a burden to him, and his father had died shortly after he was born. Later, he found his love of communism, although his brother says that he just wanted to be different. after joining the army and becoming an expert shooter, he defected and went to Moscow in order to become part of the Russian cause. at first they didnt want him, but he ended up staying, finding a wife and having a child. when he returned to america, he thought that there would be reporters there asking him questions of why he went to russia, and why he came back. he went back into solitude and into a life that was too normal for him. After ordering a gun, he shot president Kennedy at a parade in Dallas. through computer generation of the scene, it seems logical that the second shot came from a 6th story room in a building where they found much evidence supporting that Oswald was the murderer, including his fingerprints in the sniper's position and on the rifle, but people still have their doubts and believe that this was a conspiracy stirred up by organized crime.
(Nonie Grewal)
Q1: Before mid 1963, what was President Kennedy’s view and stand of the civil rights movement and black demands?
A1: Kennedy did not take a forceful stand and instead held the same view as the FBI director (J. Edgar Hoover), which was that the civil rights movement was inspired by communism and therefore should not necessarily be supported.
Q2: What did the president’s brother, Robert F. Kennedy do indicating that he held a similar view affiliating the civil rights movement with communism?
A2: Robert Kennedy (who was the Attorney General at the time) approved the FBI wiretaps on Martin Luther King Jr.’s phones.
Q3: What finally caused Kennedy to finally reconsider and enforce civil rights? Give examples of specific events.
A3: The events in Birmingham in May of 1963.
(Source: http://mlk-kpp01.stanford.edu/index.php/encyclopedia/encyclopedia/enc_birmingham_campaign/)
- On May 2, 1963 over a 1,000 black students marched into Birmingham. Many were arrested, beaten, attacked by police dogs, and hosed down by the police. This event continued for several days. Meanwhile pictures, videos, and news was streaming across the nation describing and providing visuals of these events. At the same time business was declining due to the boycotts and publicity of the events, causing for white owners to seek a negotiation with Martin Luther King Jr. On May 10th King announced the removal of segregation signs in many public facilities, along with the release of protestors in jail on bond. This is known as ‘The Birmingham Truce Agreement.’
Q4: What did Kennedy realize and do after these events in regards to the civil rights movement and American freedom? Did he ever witness the effects of his decisions?
A4: He realized that it was virtually impossible for America to maintain its reputation as a champion of freedom if it had serious inequality issues within the nation. As a result he went on national television in efforts to call for a bill to be enacted banning discrimination in all public accommodation places. He rationalized his decision by asserting the fact that as a nation America preaches the idea of freedom around the world but lack freedom in its own land and amongst its own people.
Q5: Did President Kennedy ever witness the effects of his decisions?
A5: John F. Kennedy never got to witness the passing of his civil rights bill as he was assassinated on November 22, 1963 in Dallas Texas, where he was shot and killed. Although there are many conspiracy theories, it is believed that the assassin was Lee Harvey Oswald, a troubled former marine. This event struck hard in virtually all Americans of this generation. Much like Pearl Harbor and September 11, 2001, Kennedy’s death is remembered as being a great devastation. President Lyndon B. Johnson would follow him. Lyndon successfully continued the passage of the civil rights bill and furthered Kennedy’s ambitions by launching a domestic liberalism program.
(Source: http://www.zimbio.com/pictures/8NXmGLnox3D/1963+President+John+F+Kennedy+Assassinated/71vX4hR9wB1)
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